Ayurvedic Diet & Nutrition

Aged Rice

कैदारशालि

Kaidara variety of Shali rice — a specific rice grown in Kaidara (wetland/marshy) fields. Its properties are described as appetizing and absorbent. The grain that is old (one year) is preferred. Verses: 9.

Aluka

शालुक

Shaluk and similar tuber/root vegetables grouped together. These are aquatic tubers including lotus root and similar water plant tubers. They are heavy, cooling and nourishing. Verse: 59.

Amaranth - Rajgira

रामसरा

Ramasara is another species of Amaranthus used as a vegetable. The plant is erect and bushy. It has drooping flower spikes which are red or purple. The seeds (Rajgira) are also used as grain — popped or ground into flour. The plant is both ornamental and edible. Verses: 13.

Animals Living in Burrows

बिलेशयमांस

Animals that live in burrows (Bileshaya) — includes porcupine, mongoose, rats and similar creatures. Their meat is generally heavy and nourishing. Various burrowing animals are described with their specific properties. Verses: 19-20.

Animals eating from long distance

प्रसहमांस

Prasaha category includes animals and birds that snatch or tear their food — carnivorous birds of prey and animals. Their meat is generally heavy and hot. It pacifies Vata. This includes eagle, hawk, kite and similar birds. Verses: 25.

Animals of Various Habitats - Summary

निवासभेद

Summary of animal classification by habitat: Jangala (dry forest/arid) animals provide the lightest, most easily digestible meat — best for therapeutic use. Anupa (marshy/wetland) animals give heavy, nourishing, channel-blocking meat — used for weight gain. Jalaja (aquatic) creatures give heavy, unctuous meat beneficial for Vata but aggravating to Kapha. Animals of sadharana (mixed) habitat have intermediate properties. The therapeutic application depends on the patient's condition, constitution and the specific disease being treated. Verses: 1-6, concluding section.

Aquatic/Swimming Birds

प्लवमांस

Plava birds are aquatic/swimming birds — includes swan, goose, duck, crane, heron etc. Their meat is generally heavy, unctuous, cooling and nourishing. Being aquatic birds, they share properties with Anupa animals. They are useful for nourishment and semen production. Heavier than land birds. Verses: 29-31.

Arahar Lentil

अरहट

Further description of Arahar/Tuvar varieties and their preparation methods. Different regional varieties and their comparative properties are discussed. Verses: 47-48.

Arghya Honey

आर्घ्यमधु

Arghya Madhu is described as being beneficial for eye diseases and effective in pacifying Kapha and Pitta doshas. It is light in quality. It is considered good for therapeutic use but ranks below Makshika in overall quality. Verse 14.

Aryeranuka

अयेरण्डतैलम्

This oil is described as pungent in taste, hot in potency, and sharp. It is useful in skin diseases and parasitic conditions. It has strong penetrating qualities and is primarily used externally. Verses: 20-21.

Asava and Arishta — General Description

आसवारिष्टम्

Asava and Arishta are the most important categories of fermented medicinal preparations in Ayurveda. Asava is prepared by fermenting fresh herbal juices (Swarasa) with sugar/jaggery and Dhataki flowers (Woodfordia fruticosa) as a fermenting agent. Arishta is prepared similarly but uses decoctions (Kashaya/Kwatha) of herbs instead of fresh juice. Both undergo controlled fermentation in sealed earthen vessels for specified periods (typically 15-30 days or more). The key fermenting agent is Dhataki pushpa (Woodfordia fruticosa flowers), which acts as the natural yeast/fermenting catalyst. These preparations are self-generated preservatives due to their alcohol content and can last for years. In fact, older Asavas and Arishtas are considered more potent and therapeutically effective. Common examples include Draksharishta (grape wine), Ashokarishta, Dashmularishta, Kutajarishta, and Lohasava. These preparations are widely used in clinical practice for a variety of conditions — digestive disorders, anemia, gynecological problems, respiratory diseases, and general debility. The alcohol generated during fermentation serves as both a preservative and a medium that enhances the bioavailability of herbal compounds. Verses: 20-25.

Ash Gourd

कूष्माण्ड

Kushmanda (Ash Gourd/Petha) is a large trailing gourd vine. The mature fruits are large, oblong or round, covered with a white waxy bloom — hence the name Ash Gourd. The flesh is white and sweet. It is heavy, nourishing, cooling and highly valued in Ayurveda. It is considered one of the best Medhya (brain tonic) vegetables. It promotes intellect, strength, semen and breast milk production. The Petha sweet is made from this gourd. It is particularly useful in Pitta conditions and raktapitta (bleeding disorders). Kushmanda swarasa (juice) is used medicinally. Verses: 34-36.

Auddalaka Honey

औद्दालकमधु

Auddalaka Madhu is produced by bees that inhabit anthills. It has a sour (Amla) element in addition to sweet and astringent tastes. It is beneficial for improving voice quality (Svarya), treating skin diseases (Kushtha), and counteracting certain poisons (Visha). It is light in property. Verse 15.

Spring Water

औद्भिदजलम्

Auddbhida Jala (water emerging from the earth's surface as springs) has properties that depend on the minerals and soil through which it passes. Springs emerging from rocky terrain tend to be lighter and purer. Those from mineral-rich earth may have specific therapeutic properties. The text classifies earth-sourced water based on the predominance of the Pancha Mahabhutas (five great elements) in the soil. Water from white, sandy soil is light; from black, clay soil is heavy; and from mineral-rich soil may have astringent or other tastes. Verses 25-26.

Ayurvedic Guide to Grains & Cereals

Bajra

वरुक

Bajra (Pearl Millet) is a major millet crop grown in arid and semi-arid regions of India, particularly Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. It is the most widely grown millet in India. The plant is tall (4-6 feet) with characteristic cylindrical spikes. Bajra roti (flatbread) is a staple food in western India. It is heavy, hot in potency, and nourishing. It is particularly suited for winter consumption due to its heating nature. It provides strength and is good for laborers and physically active people. It aggravates Pitta but pacifies Kapha. Rich in iron and calcium compared to other cereals. Verses: 66-67.

Bal-Tarana-Budde Sugarcane

बालतरणबुद्देइक्षुगुणाः

These are additional varieties described in the text. They represent specific cultivars known in certain regions. Their properties follow the general pattern of sugarcane but with variations in sweetness and therapeutic potency. Verse 14.

Bamboo Shoot

वंशशाक

Bamboo shoots used as a vegetable in many parts of India, especially northeastern regions. They are pickled or cooked fresh. Verse: 38.

Barley

यव

Yava (Barley) is considered one of the most important therapeutic grains in Ayurveda. It grows in winter (Rabi) season across India. The plant is 2-3 feet tall with characteristic awns (Shuka). Barley is the grain of choice for Kapha and Medas (fat) disorders. It is light, dry, and has a scraping (Lekhana) action, making it ideal for obesity, diabetes, high cholesterol, and Kapha-dominant conditions. It is Pathya (wholesome) in almost all diseases. Barley can be consumed as Saktu (roasted flour), Yava-anna (cooked barley), Mantha (barley drink), and Yavagu (barley gruel). The Lemma-Palea (husk) must be removed. Yava is also called Indian Oat (Avena byzantina). Barley grains are ground to make Sattu — a traditional cooling drink especially in summer. Barley water is diuretic and used in urinary disorders. Barley flour paste applied externally reduces inflammation. Chemical analysis shows protein 12.5%, carbohydrates, and important B-vitamins. Verses: 24-29.

Barley Gruel

यवागूः

Yavagu is a gruel prepared from barley or other grains. It is light, appetizing, digestive, and absorbent. Different types of Yavagu are described based on the ingredients used. It alleviates Vata dosha and is beneficial in digestive disorders. Various medicated Yavagu preparations are described with specific therapeutic applications.

Barley Preparations — Yavaka

यावक

Yavaka — a small variety of barley or barley-like grain. Properties similar to Yava but slightly different. Various preparations of barley and their specific uses are described. Verses: 29-30.

Bee Wax Properties

मधुसिच्चक

The chapter also briefly mentions the properties of beeswax (Madhusiktha/Sicchaka). Beeswax is astringent and sweet in taste, unctuous, cold in potency. It heals wounds and alleviates Vata and Pitta. It is used externally in various ointment preparations, plasters, and medicated waxes for wound healing and skin conditions. Verse 21.

Chickpea

चणक

Chanaka (Bengal Gram/Chickpea) is widely consumed in India in many forms — whole (Kala Chana), split (Chana Dal), roasted (Bhuna Chana), flour (Besan), and soaked/sprouted. It is sweet, astringent, light, and dry. It is strengthening, promotes semen, and is beneficial for hair. It is used in bleeding disorders. The black/brown (Kala Chana) and cream/white (Kabuli Chana) varieties exist. Chana is Vatakara (Vata-aggravating) in excess but when consumed with proper preparation (oil, spices), this effect is mitigated. Sattu (roasted gram flour) is a traditional cooling drink. Chana sprouts are highly nutritious. The green tender pods (Cholia) are also eaten. Protein content is significant at 18-22%. Verses: 48-50.

Bhakri/Thick Bread

भाकरी

Bhakri is a thick flatbread made from jowar (sorghum), bajra (millet), or other coarse grains. It is heavier than thin Roti and provides more sustained energy. Being heavy, it requires strong digestive fire.

Bhakta

भक्तम्

Bhakta is a general term for cooked food, particularly cooked rice. The properties of Bhakta depend on the type of grain, method of cooking, and accompaniments. Fresh Bhakta is better than stale food. Food should be consumed warm and fresh for best results. Reheated food loses some of its nutritive value. The chapter provides detailed guidelines on how, when, and in what quantities food should be consumed.

Bhramara Honey

भ्रामरमधु

Bhramara Madhu is produced by large black bees called Bhramara. It is translucent white (Svaccha) in appearance and has a slimy, viscous consistency. It is heavier than Makshika honey. It is particularly useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta) and conditions involving excessive Pitta. Due to its heavy and slimy nature, it is not considered as therapeutically versatile as Makshika honey. Verses 7-8.

Bhumsari/Puri Type

भुंसरी

Bhumsari is a type of small puffed fried bread. Similar to small Puris. It is fried and puffed up during cooking. Properties are similar to Puri - heavy, unctuous, and nourishing.

Birds that Peck

प्रतुदमांस

Pratuda birds are those that peck their food with their beaks — includes woodpecker, crow, parrot, sparrow etc. Their meat varies in properties. Generally lighter meats. The chapter lists various species with individual properties. Verses: 27-28.

Birds that Scratch

विष्किरमांस

Viskira birds are those that scratch the ground for food — includes peacock, partridge, quail, jungle fowl etc. Their meat is generally light, cooling, absorbent and balances all doshas. They are among the best birds for therapeutic meat consumption. The Viskira category is equivalent to Jangala among quadrupeds. Verses: 20-26.

Bitter Bottle Gourd

कटुतुम्बी

Bitter Bottle Gourd is a toxic variety of bottle gourd. It should NOT be consumed as food as it can cause severe poisoning and even death. It is occasionally used medicinally as a purgative. The bitterness indicates the presence of toxic cucurbitacins. Cases of poisoning from bitter bottle gourd have been reported. Verse: 33.

Black Gram

माष

Masha (Black Gram/Urad) is the heaviest among pulses — exactly opposite in properties to Mudga. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and hot in potency. It is the best Vata-pacifying pulse and a powerful aphrodisiac. It increases Kapha and Pitta. Black gram is extensively used in Vata disorders, weakness, low back pain, and male reproductive disorders. It is a traditional ingredient in strengthening preparations. Urad dal cooked with ghee and spices is highly nourishing. The black variety is stronger than the white. Externally, black gram paste is applied in painful joints and Vata conditions. It should be avoided in Kapha and Pitta disorders, obesity, and diabetes. Verses: 38-40.

Black Gram Preparation

उड्डालकम्

Preparations made from black gram (Urad) such as Vada (fried fritters), Idli, Dosa etc. are sweet, heavy, unctuous, hot in potency, aphrodisiac, strengthening, and alleviate Vata. They are among the heavier pulse preparations and increase Kapha. Black gram preparations are particularly beneficial for those who need strength and weight gain.

Bladder Dock

चुक्रशाक

Chukra (Bladder Dock) is a sour-tasting leafy vegetable. The plant is an erect herb that grows during the cold season. It has heart-shaped or arrow-shaped leaves. The leaves and young stems are used as a pot herb. It has a distinctly sour taste. It stimulates appetite, improves taste perception and is useful in Vata conditions. Verses: 15-16.

Boiled and Cooled Water

शृतशीतजलम्

Shrita Sheeta Jala (water that has been boiled and then cooled) combines the benefits of boiling (purification, lightness) with cold potency. It is Tridosha-shamaka (balances all three doshas). However, such water should not be kept for more than one day (24 hours), as it becomes heavy, stale, and can vitiate all three doshas if stored too long. Freshly boiled and cooled water is considered ideal for regular drinking.

Bottle Gourd

अलाबु

Alabu (Bottle Gourd/Lauki) is one of the most commonly used vegetables in India. The plant is a vigorous climbing vine. The fruits are large, bottle-shaped or cylindrical, light green. It is heavy, nourishing, cooling and diuretic. It is sweet in taste and easy to cook. Commonly used in curries, soups and sweets. It is particularly good for people with Pitta constitution. It increases body strength and is a good source of hydration. The young tender fruits are preferred over mature ones. Verse: 33.

Bread made from Wheat

रोटिका

Roti (wheat flatbread/chapati) is described as sweet, heavy, cold in potency, strengthening, nourishing and aphrodisiac. Thin Roti is lighter than thick Roti. Roti made on direct fire (without oil) is lighter than that cooked with oil or ghee. The properties vary based on the type of grain used and the method of cooking. Freshly prepared Roti is better than stale Roti. Verse references: 30-32.

Brinjal

वार्ताक

Vartaka (Brinjal/Eggplant/Baigan) is one of the most popular vegetables in India. The plant is an erect herb 2-3 feet tall. The fruits vary greatly in size, shape and color — from small round to large elongated, white, green, purple or dark purple. It is bitter, pungent, light and hot. It kindles digestive fire and pacifies Vata and Kapha. However, it may aggravate Pitta. Different varieties have slight variation in properties. The white round variety is considered best. Overripe eggplant should be avoided. It is widely used in various preparations across India. Verses: 52.

Buffalo

माहिषमांस

Mahisha (Buffalo) meat is classified as Anupa (marshy/wet-land animal). It is very heavy, unctuous and channel-blocking. It induces sleep, is highly nourishing and pacifies Vata. However, it is difficult to digest and increases Kapha significantly. Buffalo meat is darker and tougher than cow meat. It should be consumed sparingly and only by those with strong digestive power. Verses: 16-17.

Buffalo Curd

माहिषदधि

Buffalo curd (Mahishi Dadhi) is heavier and more unctuous than cow's curd. It increases Kapha and is more difficult to digest. It is used less frequently therapeutically due to its excessive heaviness. It should be consumed only by persons with strong digestive fire and those engaged in heavy physical labor.

Buffalo Ghee

माहिषघृतम्

Buffalo ghee (Mahishi Ghrita) is heavier and more unctuous than cow ghee. It is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and increases Kapha more than cow ghee. It is more nourishing (Brumhana) but harder to digest. It is suitable for those with strong digestive fire (Tikshna Agni) and those who need to gain weight. However, for regular consumption and therapeutic purposes, cow ghee is preferred over buffalo ghee due to its lighter quality and broader therapeutic applicability. Verse 6.

Buffalo Milk

माहिषदुग्धम्

Buffalo milk (Mahishi Dugdha) is heavier, more unctuous, and colder than cow's milk. It is particularly sleep-inducing (Nidrajanana) and is beneficial for those suffering from insomnia. However, being very heavy, it is difficult to digest and is contraindicated in persons with weak digestive fire. It has more fat content than cow's milk. It aggravates Kapha more than cow's milk. It is useful in excessive hunger (Atikshudha) and conditions of Pitta with Vata. Buffalo milk should be consumed warm and in moderate quantities. Verses 9-10.

Buffalo Urine

माहिषमूत्रम्

Buffalo urine (Mahishi Mutra) is pungent and salty in taste, hot in potency, and heavier compared to cow urine. It is particularly useful in hemorrhoids (Arsha), abdominal tumors (Gulma), and parasitic infestations. However, it is considered inferior to cow urine in its overall therapeutic efficacy. Verses: 4-5.

Butter from Different Sources

नवनीतभेदाः

The chapter describes butter obtained from different source animals: Goat butter (Aja Navanita) is light and easily digestible, suitable for those with weak digestion. Sheep butter (Avika Navanita) is heating and useful in Vata and Kapha disorders. Camel butter (Ushtra Navanita) is light, slightly pungent, and useful in Vata disorders. Each type of butter carries the general properties of the corresponding milk from which it is derived, modified by the churning and butter-extraction process. The general rule is that cow butter is the best for regular consumption and therapeutic use, followed by goat butter for those with weak digestion. The chapter concludes with the colophon: 'Iti Bhavaprakashe Mishraprakarane Navaneeta-vargah Samaaptah' — thus ends the Navanita Varga. Verses 5-6.

Butter — Names and Synonyms

नवनीतम्

Navanita (fresh butter) is described as sweet and astringent in taste, cold in potency, soft, unctuous, and heavy in quality. It is sweet in post-digestive effect. The chapter begins with the synonyms — Navanita is called Makhan in common usage. Fresh butter obtained by churning curd is the standard Navanita. Its Sanskrit names and synonyms include Navanita (literally 'freshly produced'). Fresh butter is Vrishya (aphrodisiac), Balya (strengthening), Varnya (complexion-enhancing), and beneficial for the eyes. It alleviates Vata and Pitta doshas. It is described as Deepana (kindles digestive fire despite being heavy), and is useful in Kshaya (consumption/wasting diseases), Arsha (piles), and Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). Verse 1.

Buttermilk in Grahani

तक्रग्रहणीचिकित्सा

The text devotes special attention to the use of buttermilk in treating Grahani (irritable bowel syndrome/sprue). A specific Takra Kalpana (buttermilk regimen) is described where the patient subsists primarily on buttermilk mixed with rock salt and roasted cumin for a prescribed period. This treatment is considered highly effective for chronic Grahani, Atisara (diarrhea), Mandagni (weak digestion), and Ama-related conditions. Medicated buttermilk prepared with specific herbs like Panchakola (five pungent herbs) or Trikatu is even more effective. The text states that there is no better medicine than Takra for Grahani Roga. Verses 8-12.

Buttermilk in Specific Diseases

तक्रव्याधिप्रयोगः

Buttermilk is indicated in a wide range of diseases: In Grahani roga (malabsorption/sprue), it is the primary medicine — patients should be kept on a buttermilk diet. In Arsha (piles/hemorrhoids), buttermilk with Haritaki or Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) is recommended. In Atisara (diarrhea), fresh buttermilk acts as Grahi (absorbent). In Pandu (anemia), buttermilk is beneficial due to its light and digestive properties. In Shotha (edema), buttermilk reduces swelling due to its Ushna Virya (hot potency) and light quality. In Udara roga (ascites/abdominal diseases), buttermilk is an important dietary medicine. In Meha (urinary disorders/diabetes), it helps due to its astringent and light properties. Verses 17-20.

Buttermilk with Additives — Medicated Preparations

तक्रयोगाः

Various medicated buttermilk preparations are described: Buttermilk mixed with Yavani (Trachyspermum ammi / Ajwain), Saindhava (rock salt), and Shunthi (dry ginger) is an excellent digestive and appetizer. Buttermilk processed with Panchakola (a group of five pungent herbs) is useful in Grahani and digestive disorders. Buttermilk mixed with jaggery is sweet in taste and useful in Pitta conditions. Buttermilk with Haritaki (Terminalia chebula) powder is a remedy for piles (Arsha). Buttermilk mixed with cumin (Jeeraka) and rock salt is an excellent drink for digestive disorders. These preparations show how buttermilk serves as an excellent vehicle (Anupana) for various medicinal herbs, enhancing their therapeutic effects on the digestive system. Verses 13-16.

Buttermilk — Names and General Properties

तक्रम्

Takra (buttermilk) is described as the foremost among therapeutic dairy preparations. The chapter begins with a verse declaring that buttermilk is like nectar (amrita) for human beings. Just as Amrita is the medicine of the gods, Takra is the medicine for humans. It is light, astringent and sour in taste, hot in potency, and sweet in post-digestive effect. It alleviates Vata and Kapha doshas. It is deepana (kindles digestive fire), grahi (absorbent), and beneficial in numerous diseases including shopha (edema), arsha (piles), grahani (malabsorption syndrome), pandu (anemia), meha (urinary disorders), gulma (abdominal tumors), atisara (diarrhea), shula (colic), pleeha (splenic diseases), udara (abdominal diseases/ascites), and ghrita-vyapad (disorders caused by improper use of ghee). Verses 1-2.

Buttermilk — Therapeutic Actions

तक्रकर्म

Takra (buttermilk with butter fully removed) is described as the supreme remedy. It acts as Deepana (kindles digestive fire), Grahi (anti-diarrheal / absorbent), and is beneficial in Grahani roga (malabsorption syndrome / sprue). It alleviates Vata and Kapha. Sour buttermilk alleviates Vata but may aggravate Pitta and Kapha. Sweet (non-sour) buttermilk alleviates all three doshas. Buttermilk mixed with rock salt (Saindhava) is an excellent appetizer. Buttermilk is specifically praised as the best treatment for Grahani roga (IBS/sprue) — it is said that just as Amrita (nectar) revives the gods, Takra revives those suffering from Grahani. It is cardiotonic (Hridya), digestive, and destroys the effects of improper food combinations. Verses 7-12.

Cabbage

पतोशाक

Description of various leafy/cabbage-type vegetables. They kindle digestive fire and are useful in Vata disorders. Verses: 22-23.

Cabbage Vegetable

चणकपत्रम्

Chickpea leaves and young shoots used as a green vegetable. These are commonly eaten in rural India during chickpea season. They are astringent and useful in diarrhea. Verse: 22.

Camel

औष्ट्रमांस

Ushtra (Camel) meat is heavy, dry and hot. It is somewhat salty. It pacifies Vata and kills worms. Camel meat is used in desert regions. It is harder to digest. Verses: 18.

Camel Milk

उष्ट्रदुग्धम्

Camel milk (Ushtra Dugdha) has distinctive properties unlike other milks. It is slightly saline, light, dry, and has hot potency with pungent post-digestive effect. It alleviates both Vata and Kapha, is appetizing, and has carminative action. It is particularly useful in treating abdominal disorders, intestinal parasites (Krimi), edema (Shotha), hemorrhoids (Arsha), and abdominal distension. It is beneficial in conditions where Agni is weak. Camel milk is traditionally used in desert regions for its therapeutic properties. Verse 14.

Camel Urine

उष्ट्रमूत्रम्

Camel urine (Ushtra Mutra) is described as effective against parasitic infestations, abdominal diseases (Udara roga), and skin disorders. It is pungent and salty with hot potency. Verses: 9-10.

Carrot

गाजर

Gajar (Carrot) is a root vegetable available in all seasons. The root is orange or red, elongated and tapering. It is widely used raw in salads and cooked as a vegetable, or made into halwa (sweet). It is sweet in taste and heavy for digestion. The orange-red color is due to Carotene which is converted to Vitamin A in the body. It is particularly beneficial for the eyes. Gajar contains a compound called Capsularin. The juice is nutritious and is used in convalescence. Chemical analysis shows significant Carotene, Vitamin A and C content. Verses: 53.

Cassia Leaves

यवनीशाकम्

Ajwain (Bishop's weed) leaves used as vegetable. They are pungent and aromatic. Used to kindle digestive fire. Verse: 22.

Castor Oil

एरण्डतैलम्

Castor oil (Eranda Taila) is sweet and pungent in taste, hot in potency, with sweet post-digestive effect. It is heavy, unctuous, and sharp. It is considered the best oil for Vata disorders. It acts as a mild purgative (Virechana), reduces swelling (Shotha), is aphrodisiac (Vrishya), and relieves pain. It is particularly recommended for Amavata (rheumatoid conditions), Gridhrasi (sciatica), and other Vata-predominant disorders. Castor oil is used both internally and externally. Internally, it is given as a mild laxative. Externally, it is applied on joints, abdomen, and painful areas. It is one of the most important oils in Vata Chikitsa (treatment of Vata disorders). Verses: 15-16.

Castor Seeds

एरण्डबीज

Eranda (Castor) seeds yield castor oil — one of the most important medicinal oils in Ayurveda. Castor oil is a well-known purgative used in constipation and Vata disorders. Two varieties: white (Shveta Eranda — best for internal use) and red (Rakta Eranda). The oil is hot, heavy, and Vata-pacifying. It is used in joint disorders, abdominal colic, and as a general detoxifier. The raw seeds contain ricin (a potent toxin) and should never be consumed directly. Only the extracted oil is used medicinally. Castor oil packs are applied externally for joint pain and inflammation. Verses: 82-85.

Chana Shak

चणकशाक

Chickpea greens used as a vegetable, especially in rural areas. They are astringent and binding. Verse: 30.

Chanaka Rotika

चणकरोटिका

Chanaka Rotika (gram flour bread) is prepared from chickpea flour. It is light, dry, and has scraping properties. It increases Vata and is not recommended for daily consumption. It is beneficial for Kapha reduction but should be consumed with ghee to reduce its drying effect.

Chanaka Varieties — Vatana

वटन

Various types and preparations of Bengal Gram — Kala Chana (black), Kabuli Chana (white), Chana Dal (split), Besan (flour), Sattu (roasted flour drink). Each form has slightly different properties. Roasted gram is lighter than raw. Soaked and sprouted gram is more nutritious. Verses: 48-50.

Changeri

चञ्चूशाक

Additional description of Changeri type sour-tasting vegetables used in cooking. Verse: 16.

Chaulai

वर्चुक

Various small grains including Rajgira/Amaranth used during fasting periods. These grains are light and nutritious. They are classified among the Kshudradhanya (minor grains). Verses: 60.

Chaunry Water

चौन्र्यजलम्

This section discusses water from constructed reservoirs and charitable water distribution points (Prapas). Such water varies in quality based on maintenance and freshness. The text advises regular cleaning and replenishment of stored water to maintain its wholesome properties.

Chhatri/Chhatra Honey

छात्रमधु

Chhatra Madhu is produced by large bees that build umbrella-shaped (Chhatra) hives. It is sweet, heavy, and cold. It is useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), urinary diseases (Prameha), and worm infestations (Krimi). It is slimy in consistency. Verse 13.

China

चीना

Cheenaka (Proso Millet) is another small grain classified under Kshudradhanya. It is light and dry, used in diarrhea. It is cooling and similar in properties to Kanguni but slightly different. It is grown in many parts of India. Verses: 56-57.

Churned from Milk vs Curd Butter

क्षीरसार-दधिसारम्

The text distinguishes between butter obtained from churning milk (Kshira-Sara/cream) and butter obtained from churning curd (Dadhi-Sara). Cream butter (Sarpi/Navaneeta from milk) is lighter, sweeter, and more cooling. Curd butter (Dadhi-Navaneeta) has slightly sour undertones and different therapeutic properties. Fresh, unsalted butter obtained by morning churning is considered best. Both types are beneficial but are used for different therapeutic purposes. Butter from cow's milk is considered superior to that from buffalo milk.

Classification of Animals for Meat

जांगलानूपवर्गीकरण

Animals are classified into: 1-Jangala (dry-land/forest animals — their meat is light and easy to digest), 2-Anupa (marshy/wetland animals — heavier meat), 3-Jalaja (aquatic creatures), 4-Birds are further classified by habitat. The Jangala category includes deer, rabbit, etc. Anupa includes buffalo, pig, etc. This classification is important for therapeutic dietary prescriptions. Jangala meat is preferred in most conditions while Anupa meat is used specifically for weight gain and nourishment. Verses: 3-8.

Coconut Oil

नारिकेलतैलम्

Coconut oil (Narikela Taila) is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and sweet in post-digestive effect. It is one of the few oils with cooling properties. It is excellent for hair (Keshya), strengthening (Balya), nourishing (Brumhana), and aphrodisiac (Vrishya). It pacifies Pitta dosha and is beneficial in conditions of excessive heat, burning sensations, and Pitta-related hair and skin problems. Being cold in potency, it does not aggravate Pitta like most other oils. It is widely used for hair application and body massage, especially in hot climates. Verses: 21-22.

Coconut Water

नारिकेलजलम्

Narikela Jala (coconut water) is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and light. It is excellent for relieving thirst, is appetizing, cleanses the urinary bladder, and is aphrodisiac. Tender coconut water is lighter and more beneficial than mature coconut water. It alleviates Pitta and Vata doshas and is nourishing.

Coconut-based Preparation

नारिकेलान्नम्

Preparations made with coconut are sweet, heavy, cold in potency, nourishing, aphrodisiac, and strengthening. Coconut-based foods increase Kapha and are difficult to digest. They are beneficial for those with Vata and Pitta predominance.

Conclusion of Mamsa Varga

मांसवर्गसमापन

The Mamsa Varga concludes with the statement that all types of meat from various animals, birds, fish and aquatic creatures have been described with their properties and therapeutic indications. The chapter covers approximately 130 verses. The key principle is that Jangala (dry-land) animal meat is the lightest and best for most therapeutic applications, while Anupa (marshy) animal meat is best for nourishment and weight gain. Meat should be from healthy animals, fresh, and properly cooked for optimal benefits. The chapter emphasizes that the physician should choose the appropriate type of meat based on the patient's constitution, disease, digestive capacity, and seasonal factors.

Conclusion of Shaka Varga

शाकवर्गसमापन

The Shaka Varga concludes with a summary verse stating that all vegetables and greens described in this chapter with their properties, uses and therapeutic indications have been enumerated. The chapter covers approximately 70 verses describing various categories of vegetables — leaf vegetables, flower vegetables, fruit vegetables, stem vegetables, tuber vegetables and moisture-born vegetables (fungi). Each category has distinct general properties while individual plants have specific medicinal applications. The emphasis is on fresh, seasonal and properly prepared vegetables for optimal health benefits.

Contaminated Water

दुष्टजलम्

The text describes the characteristics of contaminated water that should be avoided: water that is discolored, foul-smelling, slimy, having algae or moss, not exposed to sunlight and wind, stagnant water in which insects and worms are visible, water in which animals have bathed, and water mixed with mud or toxic substances. Such water causes numerous diseases including skin disorders, fever, digestive disorders, and parasitic infections. Water from regions where poisonous plants grow or where toxic minerals are present should also be avoided.

Contraindicated Persons — Who Should Avoid Buttermilk

तक्रापथ्यम्

The chapter concludes the section on prohibited uses. Buttermilk of different properties affects different body types. Those with Pitta prakriti (constitution) should avoid very sour buttermilk. Those weakened by disease, the elderly in extreme conditions, and those with bleeding disorders should avoid buttermilk or use it with caution. The text ends with a comprehensive statement on the immense therapeutic value of buttermilk, comparing it to Amrita (divine nectar). The chapter's colophon: 'Iti Bhavaprakashe Mishraprakarane Takravargah Samaaptah' — thus ends the Takra Varga in the Mishra Prakarana of Bhavaprakash. Verses 25-26.

Contraindications and Cautions

घृतनिषेधः

Ghee should be avoided or used with caution in certain conditions: Kapha prakriti (Kapha-dominant constitution) persons should use ghee sparingly. Those with Mandagni (weak digestive fire), Meda-roga (obesity), Ama (undigested toxins), and Kapha-predominant diseases should restrict ghee intake. Ghee should not be consumed in equal quantity with honey (Madhu), as this combination (Sama-matra Ghrita-Madhu) is described as Viruddha (incompatible) and toxic. Ghee should not be taken with cold water immediately. Heating ghee repeatedly also diminishes its therapeutic qualities.

Contraindications and Harmful Effects

मद्यनिषेधः

The chapter provides detailed contraindications for fermented and alcoholic preparations. They are contraindicated in: Pitta Prakriti (Pitta constitution) persons, during Grishma Ritu (summer season), in persons with Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), in acute fever (Jwara), in pregnancy, in children, in persons with liver disorders (Yakrit Roga), in persons with mental disorders (Unmada) already present, and during religious observances. Excessive use of any fermented preparation — including seemingly benign ones like Kanji — can aggravate Pitta and lead to acid disorders, gastritis, and inflammatory conditions. The text warns that alcohol used as recreation rather than medicine invariably leads to destruction of health, wealth, and dharma (righteous conduct). The proper use is only as medicine, in appropriate dose, at appropriate time, and by appropriate persons.

Contraindications for Buttermilk

तक्रनिषेधः

Despite its numerous benefits, buttermilk is contraindicated in certain conditions: It should not be given in Ushna Kala (hot season/summer), to persons suffering from Kshatakshina (debility from chest injury/tuberculosis), in states of Daurbalya (extreme weakness), during Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), and in Murcha (fainting/syncope). It should not be used after Virechana (purgation therapy) immediately. Sour buttermilk should be avoided in Pitta predominant conditions and in hot climates. These restrictions ensure that buttermilk, though highly therapeutic, is used appropriately according to the patient's condition, season, and constitution. Verses 21-24.

Cooked Rice

अन्नम्

Anna (cooked rice) is described as the foremost among prepared foods. Properly cooked rice is sweet in taste, cold in potency, heavy and unctuous in quality. It is nourishing, strengthening, and aphrodisiac. Different types of rice when cooked have varying properties. Old rice (Purana Shali) is lighter and better for digestion compared to new rice. Rice cooked with appropriate amount of water yields different preparations - thick rice (Anna), thin gruel (Peya/Yavagu), and rice water (Manda), each with distinct properties.

Cooked Wheat Preparation

गोधूमान्नम्

Wheat-based cooked preparations are sweet, heavy, cold in potency, strengthening, aphrodisiac, and nourishing. They increase breast milk production. Wheat preparations are heavier than rice preparations and are particularly beneficial for those who do heavy physical labor. Different preparations from wheat include Roti, Halwa, Kheer, etc.

Coriander Leaves

धान्यकशाक

Coriander leaves used as a vegetable/garnish. The fresh leaves are widely used in Indian cooking as a flavoring herb. As a shaka (vegetable), it has slightly different properties than coriander seeds. Verse: 15.

Costus

केमुक

Kemuk (Costus) is used as a vegetable. The rhizome and young shoots are edible. It grows in hilly areas and moist places. It is bitter and pungent. Verses: 68.

Cow

गोमांस

Gomamsa (Cow meat) is described as heavy, unctuous and hot. It pacifies Vata but increases Kapha. It is nourishing. In ancient texts, cow meat was described with its properties for completeness of the materia medica, though its consumption was restricted by cultural and religious norms. Verses: 15-16.

Cow Ghee

गव्यघृतम्

Cow ghee (Gavya Ghrita) is considered the best among all types of ghee. It is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and sweet in post-digestive effect. It is Rasayana (rejuvenative), promotes intellect and memory, enhances eyesight, increases strength and longevity. It alleviates Vata and Pitta doshas effectively. Cow ghee is specifically mentioned as the best Sneha (fatty substance) for regular consumption and for therapeutic purposes. It enhances Ojas (vital essence), improves complexion, and is the preferred medium for preparing medicated ghee formulations. Among all animal ghees, cow ghee holds the supreme position. Verses 4-5.

Cow's Curd

गोदधि

Cow's curd (Go-Dadhi) is considered the best among all curds. When properly set from cow's milk, it is absorbent, aphrodisiac, and strengthening. It is recommended for Vata disorders, weakness, and poor appetite. When consumed with appropriate additives and in the right season, it is highly beneficial.

Cow's Ghee

गोघृतम्

Cow's ghee (Go-Ghrita) is considered the best among all ghees. It is sweet, cold, unctuous, and soft. It is the ideal Rasayana (rejuvenator), promotes vision, intellect, and digestive fire. It is the preferred ghee for all Panchakarma procedures, medicinal preparations, and daily consumption. Cow's ghee processed with various herbs (Siddha Ghrita) forms the basis of hundreds of Ayurvedic formulations. Verses 16-18.

Cow's Milk

गोदुग्धम्

Cow's milk (Go-Dugdha) is considered the best among all types of milk. It is sweet in taste, cold in potency, unctuous, soft, heavy, and has a sweet post-digestive effect. It is life-giving, rejuvenative, aphrodisiac, promotes intellect, strengthening, increases breast milk, relieves fatigue, and alleviates Pitta and Vata. It is beneficial in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), Shosha (wasting), cough, fever (chronic), Gulma (abdominal masses), Unmada (psychiatric disorders), and Grahani (irritable bowel). It promotes Ojas (vital essence) and is considered the best Rasayana (rejuvenator). Fresh, warm (straight from the cow) milk is lighter and more easily digested. The properties vary by breed and color of the cow. Verses 3-8.

Crab

कर्कटमांस

Karkata (Crab) meat is heavy and cooling. It is beneficial for the eyes and strengthening. Crab is classified among aquatic creatures. Verses: 47.

Crane

सारसमांस

Sarasa (Crane) meat is heavy and cooling. It is nourishing. Various types of cranes and waterbirds are described. Verses: 30.

Alligator

नक्रमांस

Nakra (Crocodile/Alligator) meat is very heavy, unctuous and cooling. It is classified among aquatic creatures. It is nourishing and strengthening. Very heavy for digestion. Verses: 48.

Crow

काकमांस

Kaka (Crow) meat is heavy and hot. It pacifies Vata. Described for completeness of the classification. Verses: 28.

Cucumber Vegetable

त्रपुषक

Cucumber used as a vegetable in the Shaka Varga context. Cooling, heavy and diuretic. Verse: 22.

Curd Contraindications

दधिनिषेधः

Curd is contraindicated (should not be consumed) in the following conditions: (1) Raktapitta (bleeding disorders); (2) Kushtha (skin diseases); (3) Pandu (anemia); (4) Shotha (edema/swelling); (5) During Sharad Ritu (autumn); (6) At night; (7) In Pitta Prakriti individuals during summer; (8) When heated; (9) In obesity. Heating curd is specifically prohibited as it changes its properties unfavorably. The text warns that regular improper use of curd leads to Prameha (diabetes/urinary disorders), skin diseases, and blood disorders. Verses 15-19.

Curd-based Preparation

तक्रान्नम्

Preparations made with buttermilk (Takra) and rice/grains. Buttermilk rice is lighter than curd rice and has digestive properties. It is appetizing, aids digestion, and is absorbent. It is beneficial in conditions of poor digestion and diarrhea.

Mastu

मस्तु

Mastu (whey/curd water) is the liquid that separates from the solid portion of curd. It is lighter than both curd and buttermilk. It is sour-astringent in taste, light, appetizing, and absorbent. It is beneficial in Grahani (IBS), Atisara (diarrhea), and conditions of weak Agni. The text considers Mastu a lighter alternative to Takra (buttermilk) for persons who cannot tolerate even buttermilk due to extremely weak digestion.

Dahi Vada

दधिवटकम्

Dahi Vada (curd-soaked lentil fritters) combines the properties of fried pulse preparation (Vada) with curd. It is heavy, unctuous, nourishing, and relishing. Being a combination of fried food and curd, it is heavy to digest and should be consumed in moderation.

Dala Honey

दालमधु

Dala Madhu is produced by bees that build hives on tree branches. It is dry (Ruksha) in quality and has emetic (Vamana) properties. It is useful in urinary disorders (Prameha). It is the last in the ranking order of the eight types of honey. Verse 16.

Deer

मृगमांस

Harina/Mriga (Deer/Venison) meat is considered one of the best meats in Ayurveda. It is the lightest of all meats, easy to digest, and balances all three doshas. Being from a Jangala (dry-land/forest) animal, it is particularly recommended for convalescent patients and those with weak digestion. Deer meat is dry, light and cooling. It acts as an absorbent and appetizer. It is recommended in conditions of diarrhea, fever and general debility. Among all animal meats, deer meat is considered the most sattvic and healthiest. Various types of deer are described — Ena (antelope), Kuranga (blackbuck), Harina (spotted deer), etc., each with slight variations in properties. Verses: 7-10.

Dhana

धाना

Dhana refers to roasted/popped grains. They are light, dry, absorbent, and relieve thirst. Different types of roasted grains are described. They are easier to digest than cooked grain preparations.

Dhanyamla

धान्याम्लम्

Dhanyamla is a medicinal vinegar prepared by fermenting various grains (rice, barley, wheat, etc.) in water. It is sour in taste, hot in potency, light, and sharp. It stimulates digestion, aids in digestive processes, normalizes the direction of Vata, and reduces inflammation. Dhanyamla is commonly used in Ayurvedic Panchakarma therapies, particularly in Dhanyamla Dhara (pouring of medicated grain vinegar) for inflammatory conditions, joint disorders, and muscular stiffness. The preparation involves soaking a combination of grains in water and allowing natural fermentation for 3-7 days. Properly fermented Dhanyamla has a clear sour taste without putrid smell. Verses: 19-20.

Wild Yam

आलुकम्

Alukam (Dioscorea/Yam) belongs to the genus Dioscorea with about 40 species found in India. These are climbing plants with tuberous roots. Various species are eaten — some require detoxification before consumption. The tubers contain Dioscorine alkaloid and Saponins. They are heavy, nourishing and sweet. Some species are used medicinally. They are cooling, strengthen the body and promote semen production. Different varieties are cultivated in different regions. Verses: 60.

Donkey Urine

खरमूत्रम्

Donkey urine (Khara Mutra) is useful in parasitic conditions and epileptic disorders (Apasmara). It is pungent and salty with sharp qualities. Verses: 11-12.

Drakshasava

द्राक्षासवः

Drakshasava (grape wine) is one of the most valued fermented preparations. It is prepared from grapes (Draksha) and is sweet and slightly sour in taste, cold in potency (unlike most other alcoholic preparations), and sweet in post-digestive effect. It is cardiotonic, strengthening, aphrodisiac, relieves thirst, and promotes appetite. Among all wines, Drakshasava is considered the most sattvic (pure) and least harmful. Old grape wine is considered superior to new. It is useful in digestive weakness, debility, cardiac conditions, and as a general tonic. Being cold in potency, it does not aggravate Pitta as much as other alcoholic preparations. Verses: 22-25.

Dried Meat

शुष्कमांसम्

Shushka Mamsa (dried/smoked meat) is lighter and drier than fresh meat preparations. It is appetizing and relishing. Dried meat is considered easier to digest than fresh heavy meat preparations. However, it increases Vata due to its dry quality.

Drum Stick Tree Leaf

शोभाञ्जनपत्रम्

Drumstick tree leaves (Moringa) used as a vegetable. The leaves are highly nutritious and used extensively in South Indian cuisine. They are hot, pungent and bitter. They stimulate appetite, expel worms and are beneficial in Vata disorders. Verse: 21.

Drumstick Leaves

मूलकपत्रम्

Description of various root vegetables' leaves used as green vegetables. Verse: 20.

Drumstick Pod Vegetable

शिग्रुफल

Drumstick pods used as a vegetable. Detailed description of Moringa pod vegetable — its properties when cooked in various preparations. Verse: 23.

Duck

कारण्डवमांस

Karandava (Duck) meat is heavy, unctuous and cooling. It is nourishing. Being an aquatic bird, it shares properties with other swimming birds. Verses: 30.

Dugdha Dushana

दुग्धदूषणम्

The text describes characteristics of contaminated or spoiled milk that should be avoided: milk that has sour smell, altered color, unusual taste, or excessive froth. Milk from diseased animals, animals that have recently delivered, or animals that have consumed toxic plants should not be used. Milk that has been stored too long without refrigeration or exposed to heat and insects is considered Dushta (contaminated). Such milk causes Ama (metabolic toxins), digestive disturbances, and various diseases.

Duvipan-Nilapara-Nipasal-Deepapara Sugarcane Varieties

इक्षुभेदाः

Several additional varieties of sugarcane are listed including Duvipan, Nilapara, Nipasal, and Deepapara. These represent regional cultivars with varying properties. Some produce more juice, others produce sweeter juice or juice with specific medicinal applications. The commentary by Dr. Chunekar provides details on identification and regional distribution of these varieties. Verse 12.

Egg Preparation

अण्डम्

Anda (eggs) are described as sweet, heavy, hot in potency, aphrodisiac, strengthening and nourishing. Different eggs have different properties - hen's eggs, duck eggs, etc. They increase Kapha and are useful for strength building.

Eggs

अण्डमांस

Anda (Eggs) are described as heavy, unctuous, hot, nourishing, strengthening and aphrodisiac. Eggs of different birds have slightly different properties — chicken eggs are most commonly used. Eggs are considered very nutritious and are recommended for strengthening the body. Verses: 50.

Eight Types of Honey

अष्टविधमधु

Honey is classified into eight types based on the species of bee that produces it. These eight varieties, listed in order of quality, are: (1) Makshika — produced by reddish-brown bees (Makshika), considered the best; (2) Bhramara — produced by large black bees (Bhramara); (3) Kshaudra — produced by small brown bees (Kshudra); (4) Pauttika — produced by Puttika bees, from poisonous flowers; (5) Chhatri/Chhatra — produced by bees that build umbrella-shaped hives; (6) Arghya — also called Aarghya; (7) Auddalaka (Ouddaalaka) — produced by Uddaalaka bees found in anthills; (8) Dala — produced by Dala bees on tree branches. Each type has distinct color, consistency, taste, and therapeutic properties. Makshika madhu is considered the best of all honey types, followed by Bhramara and Kshaudra.

Elephant

गजमांस

Gaja (Elephant) meat is described as very heavy, nourishing and cooling. It is fatty and strengthening. Being an Anupa animal, it is very heavy for digestion. Verses: 18.

Taro

आलूक

Aluka (Taro/Arbi/Colocasia) is a tuberous root vegetable with large heart-shaped leaves. The corms and leaves are both edible. The plant grows in moist, shady conditions. The tuber is starchy, slimy and nutritious. It must be cooked thoroughly as raw tubers cause itching (due to Calcium oxalate crystals). The leaves are also cooked as patode/patra. Both the tuber and leaves are heavy, nourishing and increase Kapha. They are cooling and useful in Vata disorders. The corm has a distinctive mucilaginous texture when cooked. Various varieties exist — some are more fibrous. Contains Starch, Amylase and vitamins. Verses: 51.

Elephant Milk

हस्तिदुग्धम्

Elephant milk (Hasti Dugdha) is heavy, sweet, cold, and strengthening. It is considered beneficial for the eyes (Chakshushya). Due to the large size and strength of elephants, their milk is believed to impart strength. However, it is very heavy to digest and rarely used in practice. The text mentions it primarily for academic completeness. Verse 16.

Elephant Urine

गजमूत्रम्

Elephant urine (Gaja Mutra) is particularly recommended for skin diseases (Kushtha), parasitic conditions, and as an antidote for poisons. It is sharp and hot in nature. Verses: 8-9.

Excessively Sour Curd

अत्यम्लदधि

Ati-Amla Dadhi (excessively sour, over-fermented curd) is considered unwholesome. It aggravates Pitta severely, vitiates blood, and can cause Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). Such curd has lost its beneficial properties and should not be consumed. The text specifically warns against eating curd that has become excessively sour from prolonged storage.

Extremely Old Ghee — Ten-Year and Hundred-Year Ghee

दशवर्षघृतम् / कुम्भघृतम्

Ghee that has been aged for ten years (Dasha Varsha Ghrita) or more is considered an extremely powerful medicine. Kumbha Ghrita (hundred-year-old ghee, stored in a Kumbha/pot) is described as supremely powerful. These extremely aged ghees are said to cure even the most difficult diseases, particularly neurological and psychiatric conditions. They are used in Sannipata conditions (where all three doshas are deranged), Unmada (insanity), Apasmara (epilepsy), and Graha-roga (conditions attributed to supernatural influences, interpreted as severe psychiatric conditions). The text notes that such old ghee develops a very sharp, pungent taste and strong penetrating quality, making it unsuitable for regular consumption but extremely valuable as medicine. Verses 13-15.

Fenugreek Leaves

मेथिकाशाक

Fenugreek leaves are used as a green vegetable. They are bitter in taste but become palatable when cooked. The leaves are highly valued in Ayurveda for their ability to kindle digestive fire, alleviate Vata disorders and improve appetite. Verse: 15.

Fermented Rice Preparation

किण्वम्

Kinva (fermented grain preparations) are described. Fermentation changes the properties of grains, making them lighter and more digestible. However, fermented preparations increase Pitta and are sour. They are appetizing and digestive. Excessive consumption of fermented foods is cautioned against.

Finger Millet

मधूलिका

Ragi (Finger Millet) is one of the most important millets in southern India and parts of Africa. It is extremely rich in calcium — the highest among all cereals. It is consumed as Ragi mudde (balls), porridge, and rotis. The grain is small, rounded, and brown/dark. It is cooling, light, and beneficial for bones due to high calcium content. It is classified among the Kshudradhanya. Verses: 60-62.

Fish - General

मत्स्यमांस

Matsya (Fish) in general is sweet, heavy, unctuous, channel-blocking and hot. Fish is highly nourishing, pacifies Vata, strengthens the body and is beneficial for the eyes. However, most fish are Abhishyandi (cause channel blockage) and may aggravate Pitta and Kapha. Fish is classified based on habitat — river fish, sea fish, pond fish, etc. River fish from swift-flowing waters is considered better than pond/lake fish. Small fish are lighter than large fish. Various specific fish types are described individually. Fish is a major source of nutrition in coastal and riverine areas. Verses: 32-40.

Fish Preparation

मत्स्यम्

Various fish preparations are described. Fish is generally sweet, heavy, hot in potency, aphrodisiac, and strengthening. Different species of fish have different properties. Freshwater fish is generally lighter than sea fish. Fried fish is heavier than fish cooked in broth. Dried fish (Shushka Matsya) is lighter than fresh fish.

Flat Bean

निष्पाव

Nishpava (Flat Bean/Sem) is a climbing vine bearing broad flat pods. Both the tender pods and dried seeds are consumed. It is heavy and can aggravate Vata. The white-flowered variety is preferred. It is used both as vegetable (young pods) and pulse (dried seeds). Verses: 45-46.

Flat/Beaten Rice

दक्ष्यशालि

Special rice varieties including Dakshya Shali and others. Properties differ slightly between varieties. The flat-grain types are lighter and easier to digest. Particular varieties are recommended for specific therapeutic purposes. Verses: 8-9.

Flattened Rice

पृथुकम्

Prithuka (flattened/beaten rice, commonly known as Poha or Chiwda) is described as light, dry, and sweet. It is satiating and nourishing. Fresh Prithuka is heavier than old Prithuka. It is used as a quick food preparation and is easily digestible when properly prepared.

Linseed

अतसी

Atasi/Alsi (Flaxseed/Linseed) is an important oilseed. The seeds are small, flat, and brown/golden. The plant produces blue flowers and is also grown for fiber (linen). Flaxseed is rich in omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid) and is one of the richest plant sources of this essential fatty acid. The seeds contain mucilage which is beneficial for constipation. Oil extracted is used both medicinally and industrially. The seed is hot in potency and pacifies Vata. It is used in skin diseases, constipation, and as a nutritive. The plant fiber is used for making linen cloth. Verses: 75-76.

Four-leaf Clover

चौपत्तिया

Chaupattiya (Four-leaf Clover) is an aquatic/semi-aquatic fern found near water bodies. The leaves are four-lobed resembling a clover. It is used as a vegetable in some regions. The plant has a calming effect on the nervous system and is particularly noted for inducing sleep. It grows in marshy areas and paddy fields. The fronds are edible. Verses: 19.

Fried Bread

पूरिका

Purika (deep-fried bread/Puri) is prepared by frying wheat dough in oil or ghee. It is heavy, unctuous, and nourishing. Tela Purika (oil-fried Puri) and Ghrita Purika (ghee-fried Puri) have slightly different properties, with ghee-fried being superior. Being heavy, it is difficult to digest and should be consumed in moderation. It increases Kapha.

Fried Meat

भ्रष्टमांसम्

Bhrashta Mamsa (fried meat) is heavier than roasted meat. It is unctuous, nourishing and strengthening. However, being heavy and fried, it requires strong digestive fire for proper digestion.

Fried Sweet

घृतपूर्णम्

Ghrita Purna or similar ghee-rich sweet preparations (like Halwa) are described as heavy, unctuous, sweet, cold in potency, nourishing, aphrodisiac, and strengthening. They are prepared by cooking flour in ghee with sugar. Being very heavy, they require strong digestive fire.

Frog

मण्डूकमांस

Manduka (Frog) meat is heavy, unctuous and cooling. It is described among aquatic creatures. It has aphrodisiac properties. Verses: 48.

Gangawater

नदीजलम्

River water (Nadi Jala) varies in quality depending on the origin and course of the river. Rivers originating from the Himalayas (Himalaya-prabhava) carry water that is sweet, light, cold, and wholesome. Rivers flowing eastward toward the sea tend to have better quality water. Rivers originating from the Sahya mountains (Western Ghats) and Vindhya mountains may carry different properties. The speed of flow, the type of terrain, and exposure to sunlight all affect river water quality. Fast-flowing rivers over rocky terrain produce lighter, purer water. Verses 21-31.

Gangwater

दिव्यजलम्

Divya Jala (celestial or divine water) refers to rainwater that falls directly from the sky without touching any terrestrial surface. It is considered the purest form of water. It is sweet and astringent in taste, light and cold in quality, life-giving, cardiotonic, and promotes intellect. It is the best among all types of water. This water is wholesome and balances all three doshas when collected properly.

Garden Purslane

बृहत्लोणिका

Badi Lonia (Garden Purslane) is a common fleshy succulent herb found as a weed in gardens and cultivated fields. It grows close to the ground with prostrate stems. The leaves are fleshy, obovate, and succulent. The entire plant is used as a vegetable and medicine. It is cooling, appetizing and useful in burning sensation, thirst, and urinary disorders. The fresh juice of the plant is used externally in skin diseases and burns. Verses: 14.

Garlic Greens

लशुनशाक

Garlic leaves used as a vegetable. Properties similar to garlic but milder. Verse: 63.

General Properties of Curd

दधिगुणाः

Curd (Dadhi) is sour in taste, hot in potency, and heavy, unctuous in quality. It is absorbent (Grahi), appetizing, aphrodisiac, strengthening, and alleviates Vata. It increases Kapha, Pitta, Rakta (blood), and Medas (fat). It promotes strength and taste perception (Ruchikara). Curd aggravates Pitta and Kapha but is excellent for Vata disorders. It increases digestive fire (Agni-deepana). The text emphasizes that curd properties vary significantly based on the degree of fermentation (whether fully set, half-set, or over-fermented). Verses 1-5.

General Properties of Meat

मांसगुण

General properties of meat: Meat is sweet in taste, heavy, unctuous, hot in potency and sweet in post-digestive effect. It is nourishing, strengthening, promotes semen and is rejuvenative. Jangala (dry-land) meats are lighter, while Anupa (marshy) meats are heavier. Fresh meat is different from dried meat in properties. The meat of young animals is lighter than that of old animals. Properly cooked meat is recommended. The method of cooking affects the properties — boiled meat is lighter than fried. Meat soup (Rasa/Mamsa Rasa) is considered the best form for therapeutic use. Verses: 1-6.

General Properties of Milk

दुग्धसामान्यगुणाः

All milks share certain general properties: they are sweet (Madhura), cold (Sheeta), unctuous (Snigdha), and nourishing. Milk increases all seven Dhatus (tissues), promotes Ojas (vital essence), and is Rasayana (rejuvenative). The text emphasizes that fresh, warm milk directly from the animal is lighter and more easily digestible. Milk that has been stored, repeatedly heated, or mixed with incompatible substances loses its beneficial properties and may become harmful. Boiled milk is heavier but safer from contamination. Verses 1-5.

General Properties of Urine

गोमूत्रम्

Cow urine (Gomutra) is the most important among all urines therapeutically. It is described as pungent and bitter in taste, hot in potency, light, and sharp. It stimulates digestive fire, destroys worms (Krimi), is useful in skin diseases (Kushtha), relieves itching (Kandu), reduces swelling (Shotha), and relieves abdominal distension (Anaha). It is beneficial in Kapha and Vata disorders, abdominal diseases (Udara roga), anemia (Pandu), and various toxicities. Cow urine is described as the best among all animal urines for therapeutic purposes. It alleviates eye diseases, cleanses wounds, and is useful in cough, asthma, and jaundice. The Sanskrit text states: 'मधु माक्षिकापार्केश्वरमायतिदंष्ट्रान मधु विष्कृकपायकत्वा' — indicating its broad therapeutic applications. Verses: 1-3.

General Properties of Vegetable Roots, Stems and Tubers

कन्दशाक

General description of tuber and root vegetables (Kanda Shaka). These include all underground edible plant parts — roots, tubers, corms and rhizomes. As a group, they tend to be heavy, nourishing and sweet. Many require special processing to remove irritating substances (especially Calcium oxalate). The chapter covers general guidelines for their preparation and use. Verses: 58-62.

General Rule — All Oils

सर्वतैलगुणाः

The chapter concludes with the general principle that all oils share certain common properties — they are unctuous (Snigdha), hot in potency (Ushna Virya), and possess specific tastes and actions based on their source. The key rule stated is that when two oils are mixed, the resulting mixture possesses the dominant properties of the major oil component. Additionally, the text notes that the primary usage determines which oil to select — for Vata, sesame oil is best; for Pitta conditions, coconut oil; for Kapha, mustard oil; and for skin diseases, neem or Karanja oil. Medicated oils (Siddha Taila) prepared by processing base oils with herbs inherit the properties of both the oil and the herbs. The most versatile oil for all therapeutic purposes remains sesame oil (Tila Taila). The quantity (Parimana), time of use (Kala), processing method, and patient constitution should be considered before selecting an oil for therapy. Verses: 19-20.

General Rules and Restrictions for Urine Use

मूत्रसामान्यपरिभाषा

The chapter also provides general rules regarding the therapeutic use of urine. The common properties of all animal urines include: pungent and bitter taste, hot potency, and the ability to kindle digestive fire. Urine should be collected fresh and used according to specified guidelines. The suitable forms (Swarasa, Kalka, etc.) and appropriate conditions for urine therapy are described. Generally, urine of the same species as the patient can also be therapeutically used. Urine is contraindicated in conditions of Pitta aggravation and in persons with excessive heat. The methods of preparation include fresh urine (Nava), old/aged urine (Purana), and processed urine. The chapter notes that cow urine is most commonly used and is the safest among all animal urines for therapeutic purposes.

Ghee in Ayurveda

Ghee Contraindications

घृतनिषेधः

While ghee is generally considered the safest fat, the text mentions conditions where it should be used cautiously or avoided: (1) Kapha Prakriti individuals with Mandagni (weak digestion); (2) Medoroga (obesity); (3) When consumed in equal quantity with honey (Ghrita-Madhu Samayoga) - this is considered a major Viruddha (incompatible combination) and is toxic; (4) During conditions of Ama (metabolic toxins). The combination of ghee and honey in equal quantities is one of the most dangerous dietary incompatibilities described in Ayurveda. However, ghee and honey in unequal quantities are perfectly safe and even therapeutic.

Ghee Uses — Prohibited Times

घृतअपथ्यकालः

The chapter also describes specific times when ghee should not be consumed: after meals when the previous food is undigested, when there is Ama (metabolic toxins) in the system, during acute Kapha disorders with congestion, and when Agni (digestive fire) is very weak. The text mentions that consuming ghee at wrong times leads to various disorders including indigestion, heaviness, nausea, and aggravation of diseases. Proper timing of ghee consumption is as important as proper quantity. Ghee taken before meals kindles Agni, during meals aids digestion, and after meals is nourishing but heavy. The chapter concludes with the colophon: 'Iti Bhavaprakashe Mishraprakarane Ghrita-vargah Samaaptah' — thus ends the Ghrita Varga in the Mishra Prakarana of Bhavaprakash. Verses 19-20.

Ghee and Honey Incompatibility

घृतमधुविरुद्धम्

The text specifically warns against consuming ghee and honey in equal quantities. This combination (Sama-matra Madhu-Ghrita) is described as Visha-tulya (equivalent to poison). However, when ghee and honey are combined in unequal proportions, they are not harmful — in fact, they can be therapeutic. This important dietary rule is one of the most well-known Viruddha Ahara (incompatible food combinations) in Ayurveda. The mechanism described is that equal quantities of ghee and honey create opposing actions that disturb the body's equilibrium. This concept is unique to Ayurvedic pharmacology and is consistently mentioned across all major Ayurvedic texts.

Ghee in Panchakarma — Internal Oleation

स्नेहपानम्

Ghee is the premier substance used for Snehapana (internal oleation) as part of Panchakarma therapy. When consumed in increasing doses over 3-7 days (Accha Sneha), it saturates the body tissues, loosens toxins (Ama), and prepares the body for purification procedures. The signs of proper oleation (Samyak Snigdha Lakshana) include softness of skin, proper passage of flatus and stool, and aversion to fatty substances. Ghee is preferred over other Snehas (oils, muscle fat, bone marrow) for internal oleation because of its ability to absorb the properties of herbs (Sanskaranuvartan), its Yogavahi nature (carrying the properties of substances mixed with it without losing its own), and its suitability for persons of all constitutions. Verses 19-20.

Ghee — Names and General Properties

घृतम्

Ghrita (ghee/clarified butter) is described as the best among all fatty substances (Sneha). The chapter opens with the statement that ghee is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and sweet in post-digestive effect. It has a thousand-fold potentiality (Sahasra Virya) and can be used in innumerable ways. Ghee is Rasayana (rejuvenative), Chakshushya (beneficial for eyes), promotes digestive fire (Agni-vardhaka), enhances beauty (Lavanya), promotes Ojas (vital essence), and is the best substance for alleviating Pitta and Vata. It promotes memory (Smriti), intelligence (Medha), longevity (Ayush), strength (Bala), and is aphrodisiac (Vrishya). Ghee is also described as Visa-ghna (anti-toxic), Unmada-hara (useful in insanity), Apasmara-hara (useful in epilepsy), and Jvara-hara (useful in fever). It is Sheetala (cooling), Mangalya (auspicious), and the supreme substance among fats. Verses 1-3.

Ghee — Proper Quantity and Improper Use

घृतमात्रा

The chapter discusses proper quantity of ghee consumption. Ghee consumed in appropriate quantity kindles digestive fire, promotes strength, and enhances all body tissues. However, ghee consumed in excess or improperly can lead to Ghrita Vyapad (disorders caused by misuse of ghee), including Mandagni (weak digestive fire), obesity, Kapha disorders, and Ama (toxin) accumulation. The proper dose depends on one's digestive capacity (Agni Bala), constitution (Prakriti), season (Ritu), and health status. For a person with normal digestion, 1-2 Pala (approximately 40-80 ml) of ghee per day is considered appropriate. Those with weak digestion should consume less, while those undergoing Snehapana therapy may consume progressively larger amounts under medical supervision.

Ghee — Therapeutic Applications

घृतप्रयोगः

Ghee has extensive therapeutic applications: (1) For eyes — ghee is applied as Tarpana (eye bath) and consumed internally for improving vision, treating Timira (cataract), and other eye diseases. (2) For the digestive system — ghee kindles Agni (digestive fire) when taken in proper quantity, especially before meals or mixed with food. (3) For the mind — ghee improves Medha (intellect), Smriti (memory), and Buddhi (wisdom). It is the primary Sneha used in Panchakarma (five cleansing therapies), especially as Snehapana (internal oleation) before Virechana (purgation) and Vamana (emesis). (4) For skin — ghee applied externally heals wounds, burns, and improves complexion. (5) For reproduction — ghee enhances Shukra (reproductive tissue) and is Vrishya (aphrodisiac). Verses 16-18.

Ghee — Unique Property of Yogavahi

योगवाहिगुणः

Ghee possesses a unique property called Yogavahi — it carries and enhances the properties of substances mixed with it without losing its own inherent qualities. This makes ghee the ideal vehicle (Anupana) and base for medicinal preparations. When ghee is processed with bitter herbs, it acquires bitter properties while retaining its cooling and nourishing nature. When processed with Rasayana herbs, it enhances their rejuvenative effects. This Sanskaranuvartan (ability to absorb qualities through processing) quality is described as being unique to ghee among all fatty substances. Due to this property, hundreds of medicated ghee preparations (Ghrita Kalpana) are described in Ayurvedic therapeutics for treating diverse diseases. Verse 19.

Ghee-cooked Preparation

घृतपाकः

Ghritapaka refers to preparations cooked or fried in ghee. Ghee-fried preparations are superior to oil-fried ones. They are nourishing, aphrodisiac, and intellect-promoting. Ghee enhances the medicinal properties of foods while making them more palatable.

Giant Taro

मानकन्द

Manakand (Giant Taro) is a large variety of Colocasia. The plant has very large arrow-shaped leaves. The corm is larger than regular taro. It is grown in wet/marshy areas. Properties are similar to Taro but heavier. It requires thorough cooking. Verses: 55.

Goat

छागमांस

Chhaga (Goat) meat is one of the most commonly recommended meats in Ayurveda. It is considered Satmya (wholesome) for most people. Goat meat is lighter than mutton/sheep meat. It is sweet, slightly unctuous, cooling and nourishing. It does not significantly aggravate any dosha and is particularly good in bleeding disorders and fever. It strengthens the body and is easily digestible compared to other red meats. Goat meat is recommended in general debility, convalescence and as a nutritive food. Verses: 12-14.

Goat Ghee

अजघृतम्

Goat ghee (Aja Ghrita) is lighter than cow ghee and beneficial for the eyes (Chakshushya). It kindles the digestive fire and is easy to digest. It is particularly useful in Kasa (cough), Shvasa (dyspnea/asthma), and Kshaya (consumption/wasting). Due to its lightness, it is suitable for persons with weak digestive fire (Manda Agni). It alleviates all three doshas and is especially recommended in diseases of the eyes and respiratory system. Verse 7.

Goat Urine

अजमूत्रम्

Goat urine (Aja Mutra) is described as light, pungent, and hot. It is especially useful in respiratory disorders such as dyspnea (Shwasa) and cough (Kasa), and also in anemia (Pandu). Being lighter than cow urine, it is easier to assimilate and is recommended for those with weak digestion. Verses: 6-7.

Goat's Curd

अजादधि

Goat's curd (Aja Dadhi) is lighter than cow's or buffalo curd due to the inherent lightness of goat's milk. It is absorbent and appetizing. It is recommended in Atisara (diarrhea) and Grahani (irritable bowel) due to its Grahi property. Being light, it is easier to digest and suitable for persons with weak digestive fire.

Goat's Ghee

अजाघृतम्

Goat's ghee (Aja Ghrita) is lighter than cow's or buffalo ghee. It is particularly beneficial for eye diseases (Netra Roga), cough (Kasa), fever (Jwara), and asthma (Shwasa). Being light, it is suitable for persons with weak digestion. It has astringent undertones from the herbs that goats naturally graze on. It is considered excellent for Kshaya (consumption). Verse 20.

Goat's Milk

अजादुग्धम्

Goat's milk (Aja Dugdha) is considered the best after cow's milk for medicinal purposes. It is light, astringent-sweet in taste, absorbent, and appetizing. Because goats eat a variety of bitter and astringent herbs and browse on medicinal plants, their milk acquires unique therapeutic properties. It is particularly beneficial in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), Kshaya (consumption/tuberculosis), Kasa (cough), Atisara (diarrhea), and fever. It is Tridosha-shamaka (balances all three doshas). Being lighter than cow's milk, it is easier to digest and is recommended for persons with weak Agni. It is especially useful for children. Verses 11-12.

Gorastha

करञ्जतैलम्

Karanja oil (Pongamia oil, also called Gosarshapa) is bitter and pungent, hot in potency, and is one of the important oils for skin diseases. The text describes it as effective in Kushtha (chronic skin diseases), Krimi (parasites), and itching (Kandu). It is used mainly externally as an application on skin lesions, wounds, and in conditions of parasitic infestation. Verses: 21-22.

Grain Cooking Properties

शाकगुण

The text concludes the Dhanya Varga with a summary of grain properties and cooking methods. Key principles: (1) Old grain (Purana) is lighter and better than new grain. (2) Grain should be consumed according to one's Prakriti, Desha (region), and Kala (season). (3) Proper cooking enhances digestibility. (4) Grains should be consumed as the primary food with appropriate accompaniments (Upasechana). (5) The hierarchy of grains from lightest to heaviest: rice gruel < old rice < barley < wheat < millets. The varga ends with the statement that proper knowledge of food grains is essential for a physician — knowing which grain to prescribe in which disease. Grains are classified as primary sustenance (Pradhana Ahara) and form the basis of all dietary therapy. Two types of grain preparation are described — Vaidha (fermented/sprouted) and Avaidha (regular cooked). The chapter concludes noting that food (Ahara) is one of the three pillars (Trayopastambha) of life. Verses: 86-90.

Grains Classification

धान्यभेद

Grains (Dhanya) are classified into 5 main categories: (1) Shalidhanya — paddy rice varieties that grow in winter/hemanta, (2) Vridhidhanya — wild/rain-season rice, (3) Shukadhanya — awned grains like wheat and barley, (4) Shimbidhanya — legumes/pulses, and (5) Kshudradhanya — small/minor millets. Shalidhanya is identified by having no awns (kundalena vina), being white, and harvested in Hemanta Ritu (winter). Verses: 1-3.

Green Amaranth

मर्षा

Green Amaranth is used as a potherb throughout India. It grows in all seasons but mainly during monsoon. The plant reaches about 2 feet in height with erect stems. The young leaves and tender shoots are cooked as a vegetable. It is light, easy to digest and cooling. Verses: 11.

Green Gram

मुद्ग

Mudga (Green Gram/Mung Bean) is considered the best among all pulses (Shimbidhanya) in Ayurveda. It is the lightest pulse and the only one considered Tridoshahara (pacifying all three doshas). Green mung is preferred over yellow. It is sweet, astringent, light, and dry. It is indicated in fever, digestive disorders, eye diseases, and skin conditions. Mung dal (split mung without husk) is even lighter and more digestible. Mung bean soup (Yusha) is the ideal food during illness and convalescence. Green gram sprouts are highly nutritious. The plant is an annual herb 1-2 feet tall. It is cooling and does not aggravate Pitta. Among all pulses, Mudga is the most universally recommended for regular consumption. Verses: 34-38.

Gudodsya Properties

गुडोदस्य

Gudodasya (Guda + Udaka = jaggery water) is a preparation made by dissolving jaggery in water. It is lighter than raw jaggery and easier to digest. It acts as a mild diuretic and appetizer. It is commonly used as a household beverage and as a vehicle for certain medicines. When prepared with old jaggery, it is considered particularly beneficial.

Gupasita and Sitopala — Refined Sugar Varieties

गुप्तसिता-सीतोपलगुणाः

Gupasita and Sitopala (rock sugar candy) are the most refined forms of sugar. Sitopala (from which Sitopaladi Churna gets its name) is crystallized sugar candy considered the finest grade of sugar. It is very light, cooling, sweet, and has the best Pitta-pacifying properties among all sugarcane products. It alleviates all three doshas when used appropriately. It is the preferred form of sugar for medicinal preparations. The colophon concludes this as Ikshu Varga (Samasa 23). This varga describes the complete range of sugarcane products from raw juice to the most refined sugar. Verse 31.

Broth

हरीरा

Harira is a type of spiced broth or gruel preparation. It is prepared from wheat flour or other grain flour cooked with ghee, milk, and spices. It is lighter than solid food preparations and is easily digestible. It is appetizing, strengthening, and alleviates Vata dosha. Different types of Harira are described based on ingredients used.

Haritaki-infused Water

हरीतकीविधिः

The chapter includes a section on Haritaki (Terminalia chebula) preparation in relation to water. The seasonal guidelines for using Haritaki note that during rains (Varsha Ritu), Haritaki should be taken with Saindhava (rock salt); in autumn (Sharad) with sugar; in early winter (Hemanta) with Shunthi (ginger); in late winter (Shishira) with Pippali (long pepper); in spring (Vasanta) with honey; and in summer (Grishma) with Guda (jaggery). This section bridges water usage with seasonal regimen (Ritucharya). Verses 55-57.

Head and Leg Meat

मस्तकपादमांसम्

Meat from the head and legs of animals has specific properties. It is heavier and more unctuous than meat from other parts. Bone marrow preparations are also described as very nourishing and strengthening.

Healing Spices in Ayurveda

Heated Honey — Prohibition

उष्णमधुनिषेध

Honey should never be heated or cooked. Consuming heated honey is compared to consuming poison. When honey is heated, it undergoes transformation that makes it extremely difficult to digest and produces Ama (toxins) that clog the subtle channels (Srotas) of the body. This leads to various diseases. Even consuming honey in hot water or adding honey to very hot beverages is cautioned against. Honey should always be added to lukewarm or cool preparations. This prohibition extends to cooking honey in any preparation — it should be added only after the preparation has cooled. The combination of heated honey is described as one of the most harmful dietary practices. Verse 20.

Hilmochika

हिल्मोचिका

Hilmochika (Hincha) is an aquatic plant growing in marshy areas, ponds and paddy fields. It is used as a vegetable mainly in Bengal and eastern India. It has a distinctive slightly bitter taste. It is light, cooling and useful in Pitta disorders. Verses: 24.

Hilsa Fish

इलीशमांस

Ilisha (Hilsa) is a prized fish, especially in eastern India. It is heavy, unctuous, nourishing and aphrodisiac. It is fatty and rich in taste. Verses: 44.

Hima Water

हिमजलम्

Hima Jala (snow or ice water) is described as sweet, cold, and heavy. While it is excellent for alleviating Pitta, it is heavy to digest and may aggravate Kapha. Snow-melt water from high Himalayan regions is considered purer. The text advises caution in using very cold or icy water, as it can suppress Agni (digestive fire) and cause Kapha disorders. It should be used judiciously based on the individual's constitution and the prevailing season. Verse 22.

Honey Bee Products

मधुमक्षिकामांस

Brief mention of insect products in the context of animal-derived substances. Verses: 50.

Honey Dose and Administration

मधुमात्रा

Honey is classified into several grades (Matra) by different Acharyas. Makshika type: 1 Pala, 2 Sharkara, 2 Shukti, 4 Peetaka, 8 Dharana, and 6-7 more sub-measurements. Different types of honey have different recommended dosages. When used as a medicine vehicle (Anupana), honey is typically given in the quantity of 1-2 Tola (approximately 12-24 grams). The general therapeutic dose ranges from 1 Karsha to 1 Pala (12-48 grams). The colophon states this concludes Madhu Varga (Samasa 22). The Madhu Varga describes properties and medicinal application of honey — the most important therapeutic bee product in Ayurveda. Verse 22.

Honey Mixed with Ghee — Incompatible Combination

मधुघृतयोग

Honey and ghee (clarified butter) mixed in equal quantities by weight is described as a Viruddha Ahara (incompatible food combination) and is considered toxic (Visha-tulya). This combination should never be consumed in equal proportions. However, when used in unequal proportions (e.g., double the honey to ghee or vice versa), the combination is not harmful and can be therapeutically beneficial. This is one of the most important dietary warnings in Ayurveda. Similarly, honey should never be heated or consumed with hot substances, as heated honey is considered to produce toxins (Ama) in the body, leading to serious health consequences. Verse 19.

Honey with Dew or Rain — Prohibition

वर्षाजलमधुनिषेध

Honey collected during the rainy season or honey that has been exposed to rain and dew is described as potentially harmful. Such honey may contain toxins or impurities washed in from the environment. The text advises caution regarding the season and conditions of honey collection. Honey from bees that feed on poisonous flowers (Visha-pushpa Madhu) is also cautioned against, as it may cause intoxication, inflammation, and other adverse effects.

Honey — General Properties

मधु

Honey (Madhu) is described as having sweet and astringent tastes with cold potency and sweet post-digestive effect. It is dry, light, and has the unique quality of being Yogavahi — it enhances and carries the properties of whatever substance it is combined with. Madhu (Vadara = बदर) is the collective term for the sweet substance produced by different species of bees. The names and synonyms listed include Makshika, Kshaudra, Saradha, and several others related to bee types. Madhu is classified into eight varieties (Ashtavidha Madhu) based on the type of bee that produces it. The general properties include: it is beneficial for the eyes, clarifying, astringent, sweet, has scraping action, is a catalytic carrier, cardiotonic, cleansing and healing for wounds, and penetrates subtle channels. It pacifies Kapha and blood (Rakta) disorders. Verses 1-4.

Horse

आश्वमांस

Ashva (Horse) meat is described as light and hot. It strengthens the body and pacifies Vata. Verses: 18.

Horse Gram

कुलत्थ

Kulattha (Horse Gram) is the most valued pulse for urinary stones (Ashmari). It is hot, light, dry, and reduces Kapha and fat. It is the primary dietary recommendation for kidney stones, obesity, and Kapha disorders. Horse gram soup is traditionally given to dissolve stones. It is also used in cough, piles, and worm infestations. However, it aggravates Pitta and is contraindicated in bleeding disorders and high Pitta conditions. It should be avoided in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). The grain is small, flat, and brown/dark colored. Verses: 43-45.

Horse Urine

अश्वमूत्रम्

Horse urine (Ashva Mutra) is primarily indicated for Vata disorders and inflammatory conditions. It is pungent in taste and hot in potency. Verses: 10-11.

Hot Water

उष्णजलम्

Ushna Jala (hot/boiled water) is one of the most therapeutically important preparations. Freshly boiled water is light, appetizing, digestive, and alleviates Vata and Kapha doshas. It cleanses the urinary bladder and is beneficial in conditions of indigestion, cold, cough, fever, and Ama (metabolic toxins). Water boiled and then cooled (Shrita-Sheeta Jala) has different properties - it does not aggravate Pitta like fresh hot water but retains some lightness. Water reduced to half, one-quarter, or one-eighth by boiling has progressively stronger therapeutic properties. Verses 19a-b.

Human Breast Milk

स्तन्यम्

Human breast milk (Stanya or Naree Dugdha) is described as sweet, cold, light, and life-sustaining. It is the ideal food for infants. In addition to nourishment, it has specific therapeutic applications: it is used as Nasya (nasal drops) for headaches and nasal disorders, as Tarpana (soothing drops) for eye diseases, and for treating Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). Freshly expressed human milk is used as eye drops in conditions of Netra-shosha (dry eyes) and conjunctivitis. Verse 17.

Human Urine

मानुष्यमूत्रम्

Human urine (Manushya Mutra) is described with specific therapeutic applications, primarily as an antidote for certain poisons and in parasitic conditions. Its use requires careful preparation and specific conditions for therapeutic application. Verses: 12-13.

Ikshu Meda

इक्षुमेदः

Ikshu Meda refers to the fatty/oily sediment that separates during the processing of sugarcane juice. It is described as having specific properties related to being heavy and increasing Kapha. It is less commonly used in medicine compared to other sugarcane products.

Ikshu-Kshara — Sugarcane Ash

इक्षुक्षारः

Ikshu Kshara is the alkaline ash preparation obtained from burning sugarcane. It is used medicinally and has different properties from the sweet sugarcane products. Being alkaline (Kshara), it is pungent, hot, and has properties that aid digestion, dissolve calculi, and manage certain urinary disorders. This is an important medicinal preparation distinct from the nutritive sugarcane products.

Ikshurasa-Medanaha — Processed Sugarcane Juice

इक्षुरसमेदनाह

This section deals with the stages of processing sugarcane juice into various products. The fresh juice (Rasa) is heated progressively to produce: (1) Phani — thin syrup from initial heating; (2) Guda — solidified jaggery from extended heating; (3) Khanda — coarsely crystallized sugar; (4) Sharkara — fine crystallized sugar; (5) Sita — refined sugar candy (Mishri). Each stage produces a lighter, drier product with increasingly cold potency and Pitta-pacifying properties. The processing removes the heaviness and Kapha-aggravating nature of the raw juice progressively. Verse 15.

Incompatible Food Combinations

Indian Sorrel

चांगेरी

Changeri (Indian Sorrel) is a small creeping herb with trifoliate leaves resembling clover. It grows commonly in moist shaded areas. The leaves have a distinctly sour taste due to oxalic acid. The plant is used in dysentery, diarrhea, and skin diseases. As a vegetable, it is added to dishes for its sour flavor. It stimulates appetite, is astringent and useful in conditions of reduced digestive power. Verses: 16.

Indian Spinach

पोतकी

Potaki (Poi Shak/Indian Spinach) is a climbing plant with succulent stems and fleshy leaves. It is commonly cultivated in gardens. The plant has two varieties — green and red-stemmed. It is heavy, slimy, cooling and slightly laxative. It increases Kapha, promotes sleep and is nourishing. It is particularly useful for increasing semen and strength. Being heavy, it should be consumed in moderate quantities. The stem and leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Verses: 9-10.

Ingudi Oil

इङ्गुदीतैलम्

Ingudi oil is bitter and pungent in taste, hot in potency, sharp and light. It is useful in parasitic conditions, skin diseases, and as an antidote for some poisons. It is primarily used externally rather than internally. The text describes it as effective in Kushtha (skin diseases) and Krimi (parasitic infestations). Verses: 16-17.

Introduction & Synonyms of Curd

दधिनामानि

This chapter deals with Dadhi (curd/yogurt) and related fermented dairy products. Dadhi is formed by the natural fermentation of milk through bacterial culture. The text opens with the names and general characteristics of curd. The chapter is comprehensive, covering not only curd but also Takra (buttermilk), Navanita (butter), and Ghrita (ghee), making it a complete treatise on fermented and processed dairy products. Verses 1-3.

Introduction & Synonyms of Milk

दुग्धनामानि

This chapter opens with the names and general properties of milk (Dugdha/Kshira). Milk is described as one of the most important substances in Ayurveda, being both a food and a medicine. The text enumerates the various Sanskrit synonyms for milk. Milk is generally sweet in taste (Madhura Rasa), cold in potency (Sheeta Virya), sweet in post-digestive effect (Madhura Vipaka), and unctuous (Snigdha) in quality. It is considered Jivaniya (life-sustaining), Rasayana (rejuvenative), and Brumhana (nourishing). The chapter then proceeds to describe the specific properties of milk from eight different animals. Verses 1-3.

Introduction to Butter

नवनीतम्

Navanita (fresh butter) obtained by churning curd is sweet, cold, soft, and unctuous. It is absorbent, alleviates Vata and Pitta, is aphrodisiac, enhances complexion, and is strengthening. Fresh butter is lighter than ghee and is particularly beneficial in hemorrhoids (Arsha), consumption (Kshaya), facial palsy (Ardita), cough, and eye diseases. It promotes digestion and relieves constipation when taken with warm food. The text distinguishes between fresh butter (Navanita) and aged/stored butter, with fresh being far superior. Verses 1-5.

Introduction to Buttermilk

तक्रम्

Takra (buttermilk) is the liquid remaining after churning curd and removing butter. The text proclaims Takra as one of the most beneficial substances in Ayurveda, stating that just as Amrita (nectar) is for the Devas (gods), so is Takra for human beings. It is given extremely high therapeutic importance and is considered a panacea for many digestive disorders. The text distinguishes several types of Takra based on the method of preparation and the proportion of water added. Verse 1.

Introduction to Ghee

घृतम्

Ghrita (ghee/clarified butter) is considered the best among all fats and oleaginous substances (Sneha Dravyas). It is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and has a sweet post-digestive effect. Despite being cold in potency, it kindles digestive fire (Agni) without aggravating Pitta - a unique property. It is rejuvenative, promotes intellect, is aphrodisiac, enhances vision, increases Ojas, and is life-promoting. It is the foremost substance for Snehana (oleation therapy) in Panchakarma. It is an excellent Anupana (vehicle) for medicines. It acquires the properties of the substances it is processed with (Sanskara). It does not increase Kapha despite being unctuous (a unique exception). Ghee is beneficial in Unmada (psychiatric disorders), Apasmara (epilepsy), Jwara (fever), and countless other conditions. Verses 1-8.

Introduction to Kritanna Varga

कृतान्नवर्गः

This chapter (Dwadasha Varga - 12th chapter) deals with prepared foods (Kritanna). It describes the properties of various cooked and processed food items prepared from grains, pulses, milk and other ingredients. The chapter covers Anna (cooked rice), Yavagu (gruel), Manda (rice water), Peya (thin gruel), various types of Roti (breads), Laja (puffed/roasted grains), and other food preparations along with their Ayurvedic properties and therapeutic applications. The descriptions include methods of preparation, tastes (rasa), qualities (guna), potency (virya), post-digestive effect (vipaka), and effects on doshas.

Introduction to Meat

मांसवर्ग परिचय

The Mamsa Varga (chapter on meats) begins with a general introduction to the classification and properties of meat. Animals are divided into various categories based on their habitat and characteristics. The main classifications are: Jangala (animals of dry/arid regions), Anupa (animals of marshy/wet regions), and those that move in water. Jangala meats are considered lighter and better for health, while Anupa meats are heavier. The chapter systematically describes the meat of various animals, birds, fish and other creatures along with their medicinal properties. Meat (Mamsa) is considered Madhura (sweet) in rasa, Guru (heavy) in guna, and generally Brimhana (nourishing) and Balya (strengthening). The chapter first describes the counting of meat types — 2 categories (Jangala and Anupa), then subcategories. Verses: 1-6.

Introduction to Mutra Varga

मूत्रवर्गः

The Mutra Varga (chapter on urines) describes the therapeutic properties of urine from various animals. Urine therapy (Mutra Chikitsa) has been an important part of Ayurvedic therapeutics. The chapter describes properties of urine from cow, goat, buffalo, sheep, elephant, camel, horse, donkey, and human, along with the general properties common to all urines. Urine is described as having katu (pungent) and tikta (bitter) taste, hot potency, and is considered useful in a variety of diseases.

Introduction to Sandhana Varga

सन्धानवर्गः

The Sandhana Varga (chapter on fermented preparations) describes various fermented and alcoholic medicinal preparations used in Ayurveda. The term 'Sandhana' means fermentation or conjunction. This chapter covers Kanji (fermented rice gruel/vinegar), Shukta (vinegar preparations), Tushodaka (fermented rice husk water), Sura (grain-based alcoholic beverages), Madya (wines and spirits), Sidhu (sugarcane wine), Madhu Asava (honey-based fermented preparation), Arishta (herbal wines), and other fermented preparations. These are important therapeutic preparations in Ayurveda, used both as medicines and as vehicles (Anupana) for other medicines. The chapter also discusses the proper use, contraindications, and effects of alcohol (Madya) on health.

Introduction to Vari Varga

वारिवर्गः

This chapter deals with water (Vari/Jala) and its various types, sources, properties and therapeutic applications. Water is considered one of the most essential substances in Ayurveda, being vital for life and used extensively as a vehicle for medicines. The chapter systematically describes the properties of water from different sources including rainwater (Divya Jala), river water (Nadi Jala), well water (Kupa Jala), lake water (Tadaga Jala), and others. It also covers seasonal variations in water quality, purification methods, and the properties of hot vs cold water.

Introduction to Vegetables

शाकवर्ग परिचय

The chapter begins with a general description of vegetables (Shaka). Vegetables are classified into various categories: 1 Patra (leaf vegetables), 5 Pushpa (flower vegetables), 8 Phala (fruit vegetables), 7 Nala (stem vegetables), 5 Kanda (tuber vegetables) and 3 Samsvedaja (fungal/sprouted vegetables). In total there are about 6 or more categories. Their general properties — vegetables that are fresh, tender, young and green are considered best. Vegetables growing near water are superior to those growing on dry land. The chapter covers the properties, actions, and therapeutic applications of each vegetable in detail. Verses: 1-5.

Introduction — Nature and Properties of Oil

तैलवर्गः

The Taila Varga (chapter on oils) begins with a description of the general nature and properties of oils. Oil (Taila) is defined as the fatty substance extracted from seeds and fruits. The general nature of oil is described — it is unctuous (Snigdha), hot in potency, and beneficial for skin, hair, and strength. The chapter describes that oils have been classified based on their source material. The term 'Taila' originally referred specifically to sesame oil (Tila Taila), but is now used generically for all extracted oils. The chapter covers sesame oil, mustard oil, castor oil, linseed oil, coconut oil, Ingudi oil, safflower oil, neem oil, and other oils. The general rule stated is that the oil inherits the properties of its source seed or fruit, and additionally possesses the unctuous, hot, and penetrating qualities characteristic of all oils. Verses: 1-2.

Ivy Gourd

बिम्बी

Kundru (Ivy Gourd) is a climbing plant commonly found in hedges and gardens. The fruit is small, ovoid, green with white stripes when unripe, turning scarlet red when ripe. The unripe green fruits are used as a vegetable. It is beneficial in diabetes, skin diseases and blood disorders. The ripe red fruits are sweet. Verses: 28.

Jack Fruit Vegetable

पनसशाक

Raw/unripe Jackfruit used as a vegetable (Echor/Kathal). It is heavy, nourishing and cooling. Widely used in eastern and southern Indian cuisine. Verse: 38.

Jaggery — Properties

गुडः

Jaggery (Guda) is the solidified product of concentrated sugarcane juice. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and nourishing. It increases blood and fat tissues, is aphrodisiac and diuretic. However, new jaggery (Nava Guda) is heavier and harder to digest compared to old jaggery (Purana Guda). New jaggery increases Kapha, may promote worm infestation, and is difficult to digest. Old jaggery (more than one year old) is considered superior — it is lighter, better for digestion, purifies blood, and does not have the adverse effects of new jaggery. Jaggery alleviates Vata. The text lists various processing stages and types of Guda including Vikara (variations) prepared through different methods of boiling and processing. Verses 6-10.

Jaggery-based Preparation

गुडान्नम्

Preparations made with jaggery (Guda) and rice/grains are sweet, heavy, unctuous, and nourishing. They alleviate Vata dosha and increase blood tissue. Old jaggery is better than new jaggery for health. These preparations are beneficial in conditions of weakness and emaciation.

Jinji Rice and Cut Rice

जिञ्जशालि

Jinji Shali and similar rice varieties with their specific properties. These are regional varieties with slightly different therapeutic values. Verses: 14-15.

Adlay

गवेधुका

Gavedhuka (Job's Tears/Adlay) is a grain-bearing plant. The hard-shelled seeds are heavy and nourishing. It is cooling and reduces Vata. The seeds are used both as food and in ornamental jewelry (prayer beads). The outer shell is very hard and must be removed to access the edible grain. It grows in marshy and wet areas. Verses: 63-65.

Jowar

यवनाल

Juwar/Yavnala (Sorghum/Jowar) is the second most important millet in India. It is the staple grain of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and parts of Andhra Pradesh. The plant is 6-10 feet tall. Sorghum grains are used to make rotis (Jowar Bhakri), which are a daily food in these regions. It is heavy, cooling, and strengthening. Various types exist — some sweet, some non-sweet. The green plant contains Dhurin (a cyanogenic glycoside) which makes it toxic for cattle in certain conditions. Jowar roti is consumed with various accompaniments. Verses: 67-68.

Jute Leaf Vegetable

नाडीकाशाक

A wild variety of jute leaves used as a vegetable. Properties similar to cultivated jute leaves. Verses: 17.

Jute Leaves

चञ्चू

Chanchu (Jute leaves) is commonly used as a vegetable in many parts of India. The plant grows 4-8 feet tall in the rainy season. The young tender leaves are used as a pot herb. It has a slightly bitter and mucilaginous taste. The leaves are fibrous when mature. It promotes appetite and is slightly laxative. Verses: 14.

Jute Mallow - Chanchu variety

चञ्चु

This is another variety of Chanchu from the jute family. The leaves are used as a pot herb. Properties are similar to the first variety. Verses: 15.

Kachnari

कोलेरिया

Koleriya/Kachnari vegetable. It is astringent and cooling. Verse: 49.

Kanguni

कंगुनी

Kanguni (Foxtail Millet) is a small-grained cereal. It can yield up to 100 grains from a single plant. It is light, dry, and cooling. Used in diarrhea and as a light food. It is one of the Kshudradhanya (minor/small grains). The grain is small and needs to be hulled before cooking. Verses: 55-56.

Kanji

काञ्जिकम्

Kanji (Kanjika) is a fermented sour liquid preparation made from rice or other grains. It is described as the foremost among sour fermented preparations. Its properties include: sour taste, hot potency, light, and sharp. It kindles digestive fire (Deepana), aids digestion (Pachana), is cardiotonic (Hridya), promotes relish (Rochana), and pacifies Vata and Kapha doshas. It is absorbent (Grahi) and useful in conditions of weak digestion, abdominal distension, and loss of appetite. Kanji is prepared by allowing cooked rice or grain to ferment naturally in water for several days. It should not be consumed when too old or when improperly fermented, as it can cause harm. The commentary notes that Kanji should be used within a reasonable time — neither too fresh nor too old. Kanji prepared from different grains has slightly different properties. It alleviates abdominal diseases, hemorrhoids, and is used as a vehicle for many Ayurvedic medicines. Verses: 1-2.

Kanji

काञ्जी

Kanji is a fermented rice/grain water preparation. It is sour, light, dry, hot in potency, appetizing, digestive, and cardiotonic. It destroys Kapha dosha. It is prepared by allowing cooked rice water to ferment with mustard seeds and other ingredients. It is widely used as a digestive aid and in therapeutic preparations.

Karela Vegetable

कारवेल्लक

Karkotaki / Kartoli is a small spiny gourd. The fruits are small, 2-3 inches, covered with soft spines. They are used as a vegetable mainly in western and central India. They taste like bitter gourd but milder. The plant is dioecious. The tender fruits are fried or stuffed. Verses: 28-29.

Kariyatu

करियातुः

Kariyatu is a spiced buttermilk or curry preparation. It is sour, pungent, light, and hot in potency. It aids digestion, is appetizing, and alleviates Vata dosha. Various types of Kariyatu are described based on the spices and ingredients used.

Kharjuri

खर्जूरिका

Karjuratika is a fried sweet preparation resembling dates in shape. It is prepared from flour, fried, and sweetened. It is heavy, unctuous, and nourishing.

Kavdeshu — Wood/Bamboo Sugar

काण्डेक्षुगुणाः

Kavdeshu (also called Kanda-ikshu) is a type described with the term 'Tapeshu' in some references. Its name 'Kavdeshu' comes from 'Kavda' meaning its stalks. It provides a lighter juice. It is described as not being a true sugarcane but used similarly. Verse 11.

Khandasharkara

खण्डशर्करा

Various preparations made with crystallized sugar (Khand) and other sweeteners. These include different types of sweets and confections. Sugar preparations are sweet, cold, and nourishing. Different types of sugar (Sharkara, Khanda, Mishri) have slightly different properties.

Khandasya Guna

खण्डस्यगुणाः

Khanda (coarse granulated sugar) is a product intermediate between jaggery and refined sugar. It is lighter than jaggery but heavier than refined sugar (Sharkara). It is sweet, cold, and beneficial in bleeding disorders and thirst. It is aphrodisiac and moderately nourishing. Khanda is commonly used in Ayurvedic pharmacy as a base for many formulations (Modaka, Vatika). Verse 25.

Khandava

खण्डवम्

Khandava is a sweet and sour preparation similar to pickle or sweet chutney. It is appetizing, relishing, and taste-enhancing. It helps in improving appetite and taste perception. Various types are described.

Khesari

खेसारी

Khesari (Chickling Vetch/Lathyrus) is a cheap pulse widely consumed by poor populations. The text warns about its excessive consumption — it causes a disease called Lathyrism (a neurological condition causing paralysis of lower limbs). This is due to the neurotoxin BOAA present in the seeds. It should be consumed only in moderation after proper processing (soaking and discarding water). It is 1-2 feet tall and grows easily without much care. Despite warnings, it continues to be consumed due to affordability. Verses: 52-53.

Kilata and Morata

किलाटमोरटम्

Kilata and Morata are solidified/inspissated milk products. Kilata is prepared by repeatedly boiling milk until it solidifies (similar to modern Khoa/Mawa). Morata is a variant prepared differently. These are heavy, nourishing, and sweet. They increase Kapha and strength but are difficult to digest. The text considers them Guru (heavy) and recommends them only for persons with strong Agni (digestive fire) and those needing weight gain. Verses 22-25.

Kodo Millet

कोद्रव

Kodrava (Kodo Millet) is a grain grown in marginal lands and consumed in tribal areas. When spoiled or contaminated with fungus, it can cause intoxication/poisoning due to the alkaloid paspalinine. Fresh, properly stored Kodo is safe and nutritious. It is cooling and light. Grows in poor soils where other crops fail. Verses: 59-60.

Kohlrabi

कोहलशाक

Kohlrabi type vegetable described among cruciferous vegetables. It is sweet, heavy and cooling. Verse: 49.

Korela

कारवेल्ली

A variety of Karela/bitter gourd. Verses: 33.

Koupya Water

कौपजलम्

Koupya Jala (well/mineral water) acquires properties from the minerals in the earth through which it percolates. The text describes how water passing through different mineral deposits acquires different tastes - saline from salt deposits, alkaline from calcium-rich soil, astringent from iron-rich soil, etc. Each type has specific therapeutic indications. Water containing natural minerals in balanced proportion can be therapeutic, but excess mineral content can be harmful. Verses 36-37.

Krisara

कृसरा

Krisara (Khichdi) is a porridge-like preparation made from rice and mung dal (or other lentils) cooked together with ghee and spices. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, nourishing, strengthening, and alleviates Vata. Mung dal Khichdi is considered the best and is widely recommended during illness and convalescence. When prepared with more ghee and less spice, it is suitable for pacifying all three doshas. It is one of the most commonly recommended food preparations in Ayurvedic therapeutics.

Kritanna Properties Summary

कृतान्नगुणसारांशः

The chapter concludes with a summary of general principles regarding prepared foods: (1) Fresh food is always superior to stale food. (2) Food should be consumed warm. (3) Food cooked in ghee is superior to food cooked in oil. (4) Steamed preparations are lighter than fried. (5) The method of cooking significantly alters the properties of the base ingredients. (6) Proper combination of tastes in a meal is essential for health. (7) Food should be consumed in proper quantity according to one's digestive capacity. (8) The season, individual constitution, and state of health should be considered when selecting food preparations.

Kshaudra Honey

क्षौद्रमधु

Kshaudra Madhu is produced by small brown-colored bees. It has a brownish tinge and is light and cold in properties. It is especially recommended for Prameha (urinary disorders including diabetes) due to its scraping (Lekhana) and Kapha-reducing properties. It is considered the third best type of honey for medicinal use. Verses 9-10.

Ksheera Anna - Milk Rice

क्षीरान्नम्

Ksheeranna (rice cooked in milk, commonly known as Kheer or Payasam) is sweet, heavy, cold in potency, very nourishing, aphrodisiac, strengthening, and increases Ojas (vital essence). It is one of the most nourishing preparations described in Ayurveda. It is particularly beneficial for those recovering from illness, for children, the elderly, and those needing strength and nourishment. However, it is very heavy and increases Kapha.

Ksheeravikritika

क्षीरविकृतिका

Ksheeravikritika refers to preparations made from condensed or thickened milk, such as Rabri and Khoa (Mawa). These are very heavy, unctuous, and nourishing. They are among the most nourishing milk preparations. However, being extremely heavy, they require very strong digestive fire.

Kshudranna

क्षुद्रान्नम्

Kshudranna refers to various small sweet preparations including Laddu (sweet balls) made from different flours, grains, and dry fruits bound together with ghee and sugar/jaggery. They are heavy, nourishing, strengthening, and aphrodisiac. Different types of Laddu have different properties based on the main ingredient - Besan Laddu, Rava Laddu, etc.

Kudalini/Jalebi

कुण्डलिनी

Kundalini (Jalebi) is a spiral-shaped fried sweet soaked in sugar syrup. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and nourishing. Being fried and soaked in sugar syrup, it is heavy to digest and increases Kapha.

Kulathi

कुलत्थयूष

The preparation and therapeutic use of Horse Gram soup (Kulattha Yusha) — a primary remedy for kidney and urinary stones in Ayurveda. The soup is prepared by boiling horse gram in water until reduced. It dissolves urinary calculi, reduces fat, and is used in Kapha disorders. Verse: 45.

Kupajaditisya

कूपजादिम्

Kupajaditisya refers to fermented or leavened bread preparations. The fermentation process changes the properties of the grain, making it lighter but also more sour. These preparations are appetizing and digestive but increase Pitta.

Kushmanda Preparation

कूष्माण्डम्

Kushmanda (ash gourd/white pumpkin) preparations including the sweet Petha are described. They are sweet, light, cold in potency, intellect-promoting, cardiotonic, and diuretic. They help in calming Pitta dosha and are beneficial in urinary disorders.

Lake Water

तडागजलम्

Tadaga Jala (lake/reservoir water) is collected still water that does not flow continuously. It is heavier than river water and may cause channel obstruction (Abhishyanda). Lake water exposed to sunlight and wind becomes somewhat lighter and more wholesome. Stagnant water that does not receive fresh inflow becomes contaminated over time and should be avoided. Water from large, deep, clean lakes with lotus flowers growing in them is considered better quality.

Lamb's Quarters

वास्तुक

Vastuka (Bathua) is one of the most common leafy green vegetables in India. It is available from early winter season and grows in fields and near habitations. It grows 1-2.5 feet tall with erect branching stems. The leaves are rhomboid or triangular, 1-2 inches long. It is used commonly as a potherb and is highly nutritious. The leaves are eaten as a vegetable. It is particularly beneficial in conditions of the spleen and abdominal disorders. It is one of the most valued shaka (vegetables) in Ayurveda, being easily digestible, appetizing and useful in diseases of blood. Contains Carotene. Verses: 6-8.

Leea Plant

हस्तिकर्ण

Hastikarna (Leea) is used as a vegetable in some regions. It grows in forested areas. The young shoots are used as food. Verses: 67.

Linseed Oil

अतसीतैलम्

Linseed oil (Atasi Taila), also known as flaxseed oil, is described as sweet and slightly bitter in taste, hot in potency, and unctuous. It aggravates Pitta and Kapha while pacifying Vata. It is considered heavy and not easily digestible. It is useful externally for joint pains and muscular stiffness. However, it is not recommended for regular internal consumption due to its tendency to aggravate Pitta. Verses: 12.

Lion

सिंहमांस

Simha (Lion) meat is described among wild animal meats. It is light and hot. It provides strength. Verses: 19.

Lobia/Rajmash

राजमाष

Rajamasha (Cowpeas/Lobia) is a widely consumed pulse. Its properties are sweet, astringent, light, and dry. It is mildly Vata-aggravating. It is grown on vines and the pods are also eaten as vegetables. The white variety is preferred over the colored types. Verses: 44-45.

Lotus Stem

मृणालशाक

Lotus stem/root used as a vegetable. Commonly eaten in Kashmir and other parts of India. It is cooling, nourishing and hemostatic. Used in bleeding disorders. Verse: 39.

Madhu Asava

मध्वासवः

Madhu Asava (Madhvasava) is a fermented preparation made from honey. It is sweet and astringent in taste, hot in potency, light, and sharp. It stimulates digestion, pacifies Vata and Kapha, promotes intellect (Medhya), is cardiotonic, and is useful in Prameha (urinary disorders/diabetes). Honey wine is considered one of the most refined fermented preparations. When properly prepared and aged, it is excellent as a vehicle (Anupana) for many medicines, particularly those targeting urinary disorders, digestive weakness, and respiratory conditions. It carries the therapeutic properties of honey along with the benefits of fermentation. Verses: 18-19.

Makshika Honey

माक्षिकमधु

Makshika Madhu is produced by reddish-brown colored bees called Makshika. It has a tawny (Taila-varna, oil-like) color. This variety is considered the best (Pradhana) among all eight types of honey. It is especially beneficial in eye diseases, Kapha-Pitta disorders, hepatitis/jaundice (Kamala), hemorrhoids (Arsha), consumption/wasting (Kshaya), cough (Kasa), and asthma/dyspnea (Shwasa). It is the most commonly recommended type for medicinal purposes. Verses 5-6.

Manoguptikshu Properties

मनोगुप्तेक्षुगुणाः

Manoguptikshu (also known as Manoguptekshu) is described with its synonyms and specific properties. It is sweet in taste, nourishing, and has cooling properties similar to other sugarcane varieties. Verse 13.

Mare's Milk

अश्वदुग्धम्

Mare's milk (Ashva Dugdha or Vadava Dugdha) is sweet-sour-saline in taste and hot in potency. It is relatively light and has strengthening properties. It is particularly used for alleviating Vata disorders. The text notes this milk is not commonly available for therapeutic use but has specific indications. It may cause slight aggravation of Pitta due to its heating nature. Verse 15.

Masur Lentil

मसूर

Masura (Lentil) is one of the commonly consumed pulses. It is light, astringent, and cooling. The red/orange variety (Masur dal) is most common. Masur is Grahi (absorbent) and used in diarrhea and bleeding disorders. However, it aggravates Vata and should be consumed with oil or ghee. It is widely available in India and throughout South Asia. Masur dal is quick-cooking and easily digestible. It should be used cautiously in Vata-dominant individuals. Verses: 47.

Matsyandika

मत्स्यण्डिका

Matsyandika is a sweet preparation made from condensed milk. It is very heavy, unctuous, sweet, nourishing, aphrodisiac, and strengthening. Being extremely heavy, it requires very strong digestive fire for proper digestion.

Matsyandika — Semi-Solid Sugar

मत्स्यण्डिका

Matsyandika is a semi-solid, fudge-like form of sugar obtained during the intermediate stage of processing between jaggery and crystallized sugar. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and aphrodisiac. Being heavy and unctuous, it increases Kapha. It is considered less desirable than refined sugar or old jaggery for therapeutic purposes.

Mattar

कलाय

Kalaya (Pea) is consumed both as fresh green peas (vegetables) and dried peas (pulse). The fresh green peas are sweet and used as vegetable. Dried peas are heavier and more Vata-aggravating. They are cooling and used in bleeding disorders. The plant is a cool-season annual with tendrils. Verses: 50-51.

Mature Root Vegetables and Stem Vegetables

नालशाक

Description of various stem vegetables — those eaten for their stems rather than leaves, fruits or roots. This includes bamboo shoots, lotus stems, banana stems and similar plants. General properties of stem vegetables are discussed. Verses: 58.

Meat Broth Preparation

मांसरसः

Mamsa Rasa (meat broth/soup) is sweet, heavy, hot in potency, strengthening, nourishing, and aphrodisiac. It is one of the most nourishing preparations for those who are emaciated, weak, or convalescing. Different types of meat preparations have different properties based on the type of animal and method of cooking. Goat meat is considered the best for general use. The preparation of meat broth, its variants, and their specific therapeutic indications are described.

Meat Curry

कालियम्

Kaliya (meat curry) is a thick gravy preparation of meat cooked with various spices, oils/ghee, and condiments. It is heavy, nourishing, and strengthening. The properties depend on the type of meat used and the spices added. It is one of the common methods of meat preparation.

Meat Preparation Methods

मांसपाकविधिः

Various methods of cooking meat are described - Shulyam (roasting on skewers), Bhrashta (fried), Prataptam (re-heated), Kaliya (curry), Rasa (broth), Vesavara (minced preparation). Each method produces preparations with different properties. Roasted meat is lighter than fried meat. Meat curry (Kaliya) is heavier and more nourishing. The Vesavara (minced meat preparation) has specific properties. Details of preparation with various spices and condiments are provided. Verse references: 60-62.

Meat Soup

मांसरस

Mamsa Rasa (Meat Soup/Broth) is considered the best therapeutic preparation of meat. It is lighter than solid meat and easier to digest. It is nourishing, strengthening, appetizing and especially useful in conditions of debility, convalescence, and Vata disorders. Different types of meat soups are prepared depending on the condition being treated. Meat soup with spices is called Rasa, while plain broth is Yusha. It is the primary form in which meat is prescribed therapeutically. The soup retains the nutritive value while being much easier to digest. Verses: 3-6.

Meat of Sick Animals

रोहितमांस

The chapter discusses that meat of diseased, emaciated, very old, very young, or improperly killed animals should be avoided. Such meat is heavy, difficult to digest and may cause diseases. The meat of naturally dead animals is prohibited. Only the meat of healthy animals killed in the prescribed manner is considered suitable for consumption and therapeutic use. Verses: 100-104.

Medicated Ghee Preparations

सिद्धघृतम्

The text notes that ghee has a unique property of acquiring the qualities of the substances with which it is processed (Yogavahi). When ghee is cooked with medicinal herbs (Siddha Ghrita), it absorbs the active principles of those herbs while retaining its own beneficial properties. This makes ghee the ideal base for fat-soluble medicinal preparations. Some classical medicated ghees mentioned include Triphala Ghrita (for eye diseases), Brahmi Ghrita (for intellect), Phala Ghrita (for fertility), and Tikta Ghrita (bitter ghee, for skin diseases). The general method involves cooking ghee with herb paste and decoction until the water evaporates and the ghee absorbs the herbal properties.

Medicated Ghee Preparations — Overview

सिद्धघृतम्

The chapter references various medicated ghee preparations (Siddha Ghrita) that are prepared by processing ghee with specific herbs. Key preparations mentioned include: Triphala Ghrita (ghee processed with three fruits — Haritaki, Bibhitaki, Amalaki) for eye diseases; Tikta Ghrita (bitter ghee) for skin diseases and Pitta disorders; Phala Ghrita for female reproductive disorders; Brahmi Ghrita for mental disorders and intellect enhancement; Ashwagandha Ghrita for strength and vitality. The Yogavahi property of ghee makes it possible to create these specialized therapeutic preparations. The details of these preparations are elaborated in the Chikitsa (therapeutics) section of Bhavaprakash.

Mexican Tea

सुगन्धवास्तुक

Sugandha Vastuka is a fragrant variety of Bathua. It has a strong characteristic smell. The plant is used to expel worms, particularly hookworm and roundworm. Chenopodium oil obtained from the plant contains Ascaridol which is the main anthelmintic constituent. The oil content varies from 0.10% to higher. It is used as a condiment in some regions due to its aromatic nature. Verses: 8.

Milk Incompatibilities

दुग्धविरुद्धम्

The text specifically warns against certain combinations with milk (Viruddha Ahara): (1) Milk with sour fruits (especially Amla/Nimbu); (2) Milk with fish (Matsya) - causes severe skin diseases and Kushtha (leprosy-like conditions); (3) Milk with salt; (4) Milk with Kuluttha (horse gram); (5) Milk with Mulaka (radish); (6) Milk after consuming garlic; (7) Heating honey with milk. These incompatible combinations cause various diseases including skin disorders, vitiation of blood, and digestive disturbances. The concept of Viruddha Ahara (incompatible foods) is given great importance in Ayurveda.

Milk Time and Processing Rules

दुग्धसेवनविधिः

The text provides detailed guidelines for milk consumption: (1) Fresh milk (Dhara-ushna, directly from the udder) is lightest and most beneficial; (2) Milk should ideally be consumed warm, not cold; (3) Boiled milk is preferred over raw milk for safety; (4) Milk should not be combined with sour or salty foods (Viruddha Ahara - incompatible combinations); (5) Milk with fish is a major dietary incompatibility causing skin diseases; (6) Milk should not be consumed with Masha (black gram) at night; (7) The best time for milk consumption is at night (Ratri-bhojana) for rejuvenation; (8) Milk should be consumed on its own or with compatible substances like sugar, ghee, honey (not heated), or specific herbs.

Milk in Ayurveda

Minced Meat Preparation

वेसवारः

Vesavara is a preparation made from minced meat cooked with spices and condiments. It is heavy, unctuous, nourishing, strengthening, and aphrodisiac. It is one of the heavier meat preparations. Verse reference: 69-70.

Mixed Pulse Preparation

सूपः

Supa (Daal/lentil soup) is one of the most important accompaniments to rice. Mung dal soup is considered the best and lightest among all Supas. Different dals have different properties - Mung (green gram) is lightest, Masur (red lentil) is next, Toor (pigeon pea) is heavier. The properties change based on added spices, ghee, and method of preparation. Supa is appetizing, digestive, and strengthening.

Mixed Vegetable Preparations

शाकमिश्रण

The chapter discusses various vegetable preparations and how mixing different vegetables modifies their properties. Instructions on proper cooking methods, combinations and seasonal use of vegetables. The chapter concludes with general guidelines on vegetable consumption. Verses: 69-70.

Modaka

मोदकम्

Modaka (sweet ball preparations) made from various ingredients - rice flour, wheat flour, coconut, jaggery, etc. Steamed Modak is lighter than fried Modak. Various types of Modaka are described with different fillings and methods of preparation. They are generally heavy, sweet, nourishing, and aphrodisiac.

Moringa

शोभाञ्जन

Moringa (Drumstick) flowers used as a vegetable. They are commonly used in South Indian cooking. They are pungent, appetizing and useful in worm infestations. Verse: 23.

Moth Bean

मकुष्ठक

Makushthaka (Moth Bean) is a small pulse grown in arid regions. It is light, dry, and mildly astringent. Used in diarrhea and bleeding disorders. It is a drought-resistant crop and important food source in Rajasthan and other arid areas. Verses: 46.

Munjaka Seeds

मुञ्जातक

Munjataka — seeds of the Munja (reed) plant. Classified among minor/wild grains. Light and cooling. Used occasionally in tribal food systems. Verses: 62.

Mushroom

छत्रक

Chhatrak (Mushroom) grows on decaying organic matter especially during monsoon season. They appear overnight after rains. They are fleshy, umbrella-shaped fungi. Various species exist — some are edible and some are poisonous. They are heavy, nourishing and cooling. Mushrooms should be identified correctly before consumption as some varieties are toxic. The edible varieties are nutritious and tasty. They grow on cow dung, decaying wood and in damp soil. The gills (Gill) and spores are used for identification. Different species have different properties. Mushrooms are samsvedaja (born from moisture/sweat) category of vegetables. Verses: 68.

Mustard

सर्षप

Sarshapa (Mustard) is one of the most important oilseeds and condiments. Two main types: Rai (small brown/black mustard — Brassica juncea) and Sarson (yellow mustard — Brassica campestris). Mustard oil is the primary cooking medium in eastern and northern India. The seeds are used as spice (tempering/tadka). Mustard is hot, pungent, and light. It is excellent for pacifying Kapha and Vata. Mustard oil massage is widely used in winter for warmth and skin health. The seeds are also used as poultice for pain relief. The oil contains erucic acid which in excess may be harmful (cardiac effects noted in animal studies). Black mustard (Brassica nigra) also exists. Sarson leaves (Sarson ka Saag) are a popular vegetable in Punjab. The oil has natural preservative properties. Verses: 77-80.

Mustard Greens

सर्षपशाक

Mustard greens (Sarson ka Saag) are one of the most popular winter vegetables in North India. The leaves are pungent and slightly bitter. They kindle digestive fire and are warming. Traditionally cooked with butter/ghee. They alleviate Vata and Kapha. Verse: 31.

Mustard Oil

सर्षपतैलम्

Mustard oil (Sarshapa Taila) is pungent and bitter in taste, hot in potency, sharp, and penetrating. It is effective against Kapha and Vata disorders, destroys worms (Krimi), is useful in skin diseases (Kushtha), and relieves itching (Kandu). It stimulates the digestive fire. However, it can aggravate Pitta and may cause Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) in susceptible individuals. It is commonly used in cooking in certain regions and externally for massage. It is lighter than sesame oil and more heating. The text notes it is particularly useful in ear diseases and as ear drops. Verses: 13-14.

Mustard — Rajika

राजिका

Rajika (Rai/small mustard) — the small brown-black variety of mustard seeds used extensively in Indian cooking for tempering (tadka/chaunk). It is sharper and more pungent than Sarson. It is used as appetizer, anthelmintic, and in Kapha conditions. The seeds pop when heated in oil, releasing their characteristic aroma. Widely used in pickles and condiments. Verses: 80-81.

Nairira Water

नैरीरजलम्

Nairira Jala is a specific type of water described as light, sweet with an astringent undertone. It is appetizing and absorbent, making it useful in conditions of diarrhea and malabsorption. This water type has properties that make it beneficial in Kapha and Pitta disorders. Verses 30-31.

Narikela Preparation

नारिकेलपाकः

Various sweet preparations made from coconut flesh and coconut milk are described. They are sweet, heavy, unctuous, cold in potency, nourishing, and aphrodisiac. Coconut preparations increase Kapha.

Navin Guda

नवीनगुडः

New jaggery (Nava Guda / freshly prepared jaggery) is described as heavy, difficult to digest, Kapha-increasing, and potentially promoting worm infestation. It should be avoided by those with weak digestion, Kapha disorders, and worm-prone constitutions. New jaggery is unctuous and increases blood and muscle tissue but at the cost of heaviness and Kapha vitiation. The text strongly recommends using old jaggery instead of new jaggery for both daily use and therapeutic purposes. Verse 27.

Neem Oil

निम्बतैलम्

Neem oil (Nimba Taila) is bitter and pungent in taste, cold in potency. It is one of the most important oils for skin diseases (Kushtha), parasitic conditions (Krimi), itching (Kandu), and wound healing (Vrana Ropana). It pacifies Pitta dosha and has strong antibacterial and anti-fungal properties. It is used primarily externally for various skin conditions, scalp problems, and as an insect repellent. Internally, it can be used in very small doses for specific conditions. Verses: 17-18.

Nivara

नीवार

Neevar/Nivara (Wild Rice) grows wild in flooded areas and near water bodies. It is a light grain and grows without cultivation. It is lighter than regular rice and used in convalescence. It is similar to wild rice species found in marshlands. Verses: 65-66.

Night Prohibition of Curd

दधिनिशिनिषेधः

The text specifically prohibits consuming curd at night (Nishi/Ratri). Nighttime consumption of curd is said to cause Jwara (fever), Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), Kushtha (skin diseases), Pandu (anemia), Kamala (jaundice), Bhrama (vertigo), and Shotha (edema). If one must consume curd at night, it should be mixed with honey, sugar, ghee, or Amalaki (Indian gooseberry) to counter its adverse effects. Buttermilk (Takra) or Ghrita (ghee) can be used as substitutes at night. This prohibition is one of the most emphasized dietary rules in Ayurveda. Verses 12-14.

Nilgai

गवयमांस

Gavaya (Nilgai) meat is heavier than deer meat. It is nourishing and strengthening. Verses: 21.

Nivara

नवपुराणशालि

The text distinguishes between new rice (Nava Shali) and old rice (Purana Shali). New rice is heavy, Kapha-increasing, and harder to digest. Old rice (minimum one year) is light, easily digestible, and therapeutically superior. The longer rice is stored (up to a point), the better its medicinal qualities become. This applies to all rice varieties. Verses: 10-11.

Nolinya

लोणी

Nolinya and Bada Nolinya (large variety) are leafy vegetables with sour taste. They are used as condiments and vegetables. They promote appetite and improve taste. The plant bears small thick fleshy leaves that store moisture. Sour in taste, they are appetizing and light. Verses: 20-22.

Nuchita Ikshu Rasa — Chewed Sugarcane Juice

नूचितइक्षुरस

Juice obtained by directly chewing sugarcane (Nuchita) is described as having the best properties among all methods of extraction. This is because the juice is consumed immediately without any oxidation and is mixed with saliva which aids in digestion. Chewed sugarcane juice is sweeter and more readily absorbed. It is particularly recommended for nourishment and as a Rasayana (rejuvenative) practice. Verse 15.

Oil/Ghee Fried Preparations

तेलपक्वम्

Tela Pakva (oil-fried preparations like Kachori, Samosa, etc.) are heavy, unctuous, nourishing, and increase Kapha dosha. Preparations fried in ghee are considered better than those fried in oil. Deep-fried foods are the heaviest among all cooking methods and require strong digestive fire. They should be consumed in moderation. The effects differ based on the oil used - sesame oil, mustard oil, coconut oil, etc.

Old Ghee

पुराणघृतम्

Old ghee (Purana Ghrita) — ghee that has been stored for one year or more — develops different and enhanced properties. As ghee ages, it becomes more potent therapeutically. One-year-old ghee is good; ghee aged for 10 years is called 'Dasha Varsha Ghrita' and is more potent; ghee aged for 100 years is called 'Kumbha Ghrita' and is supremely efficacious. Old ghee turns pungent and bitter in taste, becomes lighter, develops hot potency, and becomes an excellent medicine for mental disorders. It is specifically used in Unmada (insanity), Apasmara (epilepsy), Mada (intoxication), Murcha (fainting), and Visha (poisoning). It is also useful in diseases of the head (Shiro-roga), eyes (Netra-roga), ears (Karna-roga), and female reproductive system (Yoni-roga). Old ghee is applied externally as well as used internally. The older the ghee, the more powerful its medicinal properties become, though its palatability decreases. Verses 8-12.

Old Jaggery

पुराणगुडः

Old jaggery (Purana Guda), stored for more than one year, is considered far superior to new jaggery. It is lighter, appetizing, cardiotonic, and acts as a blood purifier. It does not cause the Kapha-increasing effects associated with fresh jaggery. Old jaggery is recommended as a wholesome (Pathya) sweetener for daily use. It is also less likely to promote worm infestation compared to new jaggery. Verses 11-12.

Old vs. New Honey

नवमधु-पुराणमधु

New honey (Nava Madhu) is described as nourishing (Brumhana), slightly laxative, and increases Kapha. It is heavier and more building in nature. Old honey (Purana Madhu) — honey that has been stored for more than one year — is considered superior for medicinal purposes. Old honey is light, dry, has a scraping (Lekhana) action, reduces Kapha and fat (Meda), and is better for treating obesity, diabetes (Prameha), and Kapha disorders. It is more potent in its Yogavahi (catalytic carrier) property. The principle is: the older the honey, the better its medicinal properties, particularly for Lekhana and Kapha-reducing actions. Verses 17-18.

Onion Greens

पलाण्डुशाक

Onion greens or spring onion leaves used as a vegetable. Properties related to onion leaves as a shaka. Verse: 22.

Paddy Cooking Methods

शालिपाकविधि

The text describes different methods of rice preparation and their therapeutic significance. Bhata (cooked rice) — regular boiled rice. Odana — rice cooked with excess water which is drained. Peya — thin rice gruel. Vilepi — thick rice gruel. Laja — puffed/parched rice. Pithara — rice flour preparations. Each form has specific properties: Peya is lightest and best for fever patients; Vilepi is slightly heavier but more nourishing; regular cooked rice is heaviest. Parboiled rice (Siddhanna) retains more nutrients. Old rice of any variety cooked as thin gruel is the ideal food during acute illness. Verses: 15-18.

Pakvekshu Rasa — Heated/Cooked Sugarcane Juice

पक्वेक्षुरसः

Boiled or heated sugarcane juice (Pakvekshu Rasa) has different properties from fresh juice. Heating reduces the heaviness and makes it somewhat lighter. However, prolonged heating and processing gradually converts it through various stages toward jaggery and sugar. Partially heated juice (Pakva Rasa) is described as being between raw juice and Phani in properties. Verse 14.

Panaka

पानकम्

Panaka is a sweet flavored drink prepared with sugar/jaggery, water, and various flavoring agents like cardamom, camphor, and lemon. It is a refreshing drink that relieves thirst, cooling sensation, and fatigue. Different types of Panaka are described based on the flavoring ingredients used. It is particularly beneficial in summer season.

Pancake/Griddle Bread

मण्डकः

Mandaka is a type of pancake or griddle-cooked bread preparation. It is prepared by making batter from grain flour and cooking it on a flat griddle (Tava). It is heavy and nourishing. Different varieties include those made from wheat, rice, or mung flour. It is heavier than regular Roti and should be consumed by those with good digestive strength. Verse references: 22-23.

Paribhasha

परिभाषा

The Paribhasha (general rules) section at the end of Dhanya Varga provides guidelines for grain consumption: Old grain is superior to new grain; one year old is minimum recommendation. Grains should be consumed according to Prakriti (constitution), Agni (digestive power), and Ritu (season). Rice and barley are best for therapeutic diets. Wheat is best for nourishment. Millets are suitable for laborers. Pulses should be cooked with oil or ghee to reduce Vata-aggravating tendency. Sprouted grains (Ankura) have enhanced nutritional value. The text establishes that food (Ahara) is the best medicine — if food is right, medicine is rarely needed; if food is wrong, medicine is of little use. The varga establishes a clear hierarchy of grains for daily use and therapeutic purpose. Verses: 86-90.

Parimana

परिमाणम्

The text discusses the concept of Parimana (appropriate quantity) of water intake. The measurement systems for water are described - Nali, Saroda, Galana, Kudava etc. The appropriate quantity of water depends on one's digestive capacity (Agni), the season, the type of food consumed, and the individual constitution. Excess water intake dilutes digestive fire, while insufficient water leads to dehydration and Vata aggravation. A balanced approach matching water intake to physiological needs is recommended. Verse 30.

Parnayutikshursagar Guna

पर्णयुतीक्षुरसगुणाः

This describes the properties of sugarcane juice that has been processed or stored in vessels lined with specific leaves. The leaf wrapping affects the properties of the juice, sometimes making it more digestible or adding specific therapeutic qualities from the leaves used. Verse 14.

Parpata

पर्पटः

Parpata (Papad) is a thin, crispy preparation made from pulse flour (usually urad or moong). It is light, dry, appetizing, and digestive. Fried papad is heavier than roasted papad. It is used as an accompaniment to meals. Various types of Papad are described based on the pulse used.

Parrot

शुकमांस

Shuka (Parrot) meat is light and cooling. It promotes intellect and strength. Verses: 28.

Partridge

तित्तिरमांस

Tittira (Partridge) meat is light, cooling and sweet with an astringent undertone. It is easy to digest and is an excellent absorbent. It is recommended in diarrhea and dysentery. It is one of the lighter bird meats. Verses: 25.

Pauttika Honey

पौत्तिकमधु

Pauttika Madhu is produced by Puttika bees that collect nectar from poisonous flowers. It is large in quantity but inferior in quality. It has a pungent (Katu) and sour (Amla) taste in addition to being sweet and astringent. Its potency is hot (Ushna) unlike other honey varieties. It increases Vata dosha, causes burning sensation and may cause intoxication. Due to these properties, it is generally not recommended for therapeutic purposes. When used externally, it can cause swelling. Verses 11-12.

Peacock

मयूरमांस

Mayura (Peacock) meat is considered excellent among bird meats. It is light, hot and sweet. It is particularly beneficial for the eyes, intellect and voice. It increases strength and is easy to digest. Peacock meat is recommended in conditions of debility and for improving sensory function. Verses: 20-22.

Peetajala

पीतजलम्

The text provides standards for ideal drinking water: it should be clear (Swaccha), odorless (Nirgandha), tasteless or sweet (Madhura), cold (Sheeta), and light (Laghu). It should be free from impurities, organisms, and excessive mineral content. The chapter also discusses water quality standards. Water that satisfies thirst quickly, is pleasant to drink, and does not cause heaviness after consumption is considered ideal for regular use. Verses 57-58.

Phani

फाणितम्

Phanita (treacle or thick sugarcane syrup) is the first product obtained from heating sugarcane juice. When the juice is heated to half its original volume, the resultant thick syrup is called Phanita. It is heavy, difficult to digest, and tends to cause obstruction in the body channels (Abhishyandi). It may promote worm infestation and aggravate bleeding disorders if consumed excessively. It is not considered a good product for regular consumption. It is Ashu-kari (acts quickly). Verses 16-18.

Phenika

फेनिका

Phenika (Pheni) is a layered, crispy sweet preparation made from refined wheat flour. It is described as light and relishing. It is prepared by making very thin layers of dough, frying them, and then soaking in sugar syrup. Verse references: 119-120.

Pickled Preparations

आचारः

Pickled preparations (Achar) made from various fruits, vegetables, and other ingredients preserved in oil, salt, and spices. They are sour, salty, pungent, heavy, and hot in potency. They are appetizing and enhance the taste of food. However, excessive consumption increases Pitta and should be avoided in Pitta-dominant conditions.

Pig

वाराहमांस

Varaha (Pig/Pork) — two types are described: wild boar (Jangala Varaha) and domestic pig (Gramya Sukara). Wild boar meat is lighter and better than domestic pig. Pig meat in general is heavy, unctuous and cooling. It is very nourishing, strengthening and relieves fatigue. It especially pacifies Vata. The wild boar is considered a Jangala animal while the domestic pig is Anupa/Gramya. Pig meat increases Kapha. It is fatty and heavy for digestion. Verses: 17-18.

Pigeon

कपोतमांस

Kapota (Pigeon) meat is light, slightly unctuous and cooling. It is absorbent and strengthening. It is recommended in poisoning cases as it is considered an antidote. Pigeon meat is lighter than chicken. It is useful in diarrhea and debility. Verses: 27.

Pigeon Pea

आढकी

Adhaki/Tuvar (Pigeon Pea) is one of the most commonly consumed pulses in India. It is the staple dal in many regions. The fresh pods can be eaten as vegetable. Two color varieties exist — red/tan and white; the white is preferred. Tuvar dal is light and appetizing but can aggravate Vata. It is best consumed with ghee. It is used in diarrhea due to its Grahi (absorbent) property. The plant is a shrub 4-10 feet tall. Chemical composition includes protein and carbohydrates as primary constituents. Verses: 41-43.

Pinda

पिण्डम्

Pinda (rice/grain balls) are prepared by shaping cooked rice or grain flour into balls. They are heavy and nourishing. The properties depend on the grain used and the method of preparation.

Pishtika/Rice Cake

पिष्टिका

Pishtika is a steamed preparation made from rice flour paste. It is heavy and nourishing. Similar preparations include Idli-like steamed cakes. They are heavier than regular cooked rice but nourishing.

Pithika

पिठिका

Pithika is a stuffed dumpling preparation. It is made from grain flour with various stuffings of pulses, vegetables, or sweets. It is heavy and nourishing. The properties depend on both the outer covering and the stuffing used.

Piyusha and Morat

पियूषम्

Piyusha refers to the first milk (colostrum) obtained from the cow immediately after calving. It is very heavy, sweet, unctuous, and highly nourishing. It is considered a potent Brumhana (nourishing) and strengthening substance. However, due to extreme heaviness, it should be consumed in small quantities. It is beneficial for weak and emaciated persons. The first seven days' milk after delivery has progressively decreasing heaviness.

Plantain/Banana Flower & Stem

कदलीशाक

Banana/Plantain flower and stem used as vegetables. Banana flower is astringent and used in diarrhea and diabetes. Banana stem is cooling and diuretic. Both are common in South Indian cuisine. Verse: 38.

Pointed Gourd

पटोल

Patola (Pointed Gourd/Parwal) is an important medicinal vegetable. The plant is a perennial climber grown on trellises. The fruits are ovoid, green with white stripes, 2-4 inches long. It is bitter and pungent. It is one of the best vegetables recommended in Ayurveda for its medicinal qualities. It kindles digestive fire, is good for the heart, alleviates bleeding disorders and fever, and kills worms. It is commonly available throughout eastern and central India. Verses: 27-30.

Preparation Methods and Kinva

किण्वविधानम्

The chapter discusses the key fermenting agents and methods used in preparing Sandhana (fermented preparations). The primary fermenting agents include: Kinva (yeast/fermenting agent prepared from specific herbs), Dhataki Pushpa (flowers of Woodfordia fruticosa, the most important fermenting catalyst in Ayurvedic preparations), honey, and jaggery. The preparation process generally involves: selecting the base material (grain decoction, herbal juice, or fruit juice), adding sweetening agent (jaggery, sugar, or honey), adding fermenting agent (Kinva or Dhataki flowers), placing the mixture in clean earthen vessels, sealing the vessels with mud and cloth, storing in a warm place, and allowing fermentation for the specified period (varies from 3 days to several months depending on the preparation). Signs of proper fermentation include: cessation of bubbling, clear appearance, pleasant sour aroma, and the liquid separating from sediment. The vessels should be opened only after the fermentation is complete. Improperly fermented preparations can cause harm and should not be used.

Preparation Methods for Meat

मांसपाकविधि

The chapter describes various methods of preparing meat and how they affect properties: 1) Meat soup (Rasa) — lightest and most digestible, 2) Boiled meat — lighter, 3) Roasted/grilled — medium, 4) Fried — heavier, 5) Dried — heaviest. Meat cooked with sour substances becomes lighter. Meat with spices becomes more appetizing. Meat cooked in ghee is nourishing. The method of preparation significantly affects the therapeutic value of the meat. Fresh, properly cooked meat from healthy animals is always preferred. Verses: 55-65.

Prickly Amaranth

तण्डुलीय

Tanduliya (Prickly Amaranth) is a common weed with spiny stems. Two spines are present at each leaf axil. The plant grows 2-4 feet tall with erect branching habit. The young plants are used as a vegetable. It is commonly available throughout India. Despite having thorns, the young tender leaves and shoots are edible and nutritious. It is lighter than the smooth varieties. Verses: 12-13.

Priyala Oil

प्रियालतैलम्

Priyala oil (Chironji oil) is sweet in taste, cold in potency, unctuous, and heavy. It is aphrodisiac, strengthening, and pacifies both Vata and Pitta. It is similar to almond oil in its nourishing properties. Verses: 18-19.

Prohibited Combinations with Buttermilk

तक्रविरुद्धम्

The chapter also describes procedures and combinations that should be avoided with buttermilk: Buttermilk should not be heated (boiled), as this destroys its therapeutic qualities. It should not be consumed at night during hot seasons. Buttermilk mixed with incompatible substances should be avoided. The chapter also mentions that the properties of buttermilk vary with the season — in summer it should be taken with sugar/jaggery; in rainy season with Saindhava (rock salt); in winter with Shunthi (ginger) and Pippali (long pepper). Seasonal adjustments are described in detail. Verses 25-26.

Properties of Alcohol — Benefits and Harms

मद्यगुणदोषाः

The chapter provides an extensive discussion on the properties, benefits, and harmful effects of alcohol (Madya). When used appropriately in proper dose, alcohol acts as a medicine — it stimulates digestion (Deepana), promotes appetite (Rochana), is cardiotonic (Hridya), induces sleep (Nidra-kara), relieves anxiety and fatigue, is aphrodisiac (Vrishya), and gives a sense of well-being. However, when consumed in excess, it becomes a poison causing destruction of intellect (Buddhi), memory (Smriti), courage (Dhairya), and overall health. The text describes intoxication (Mada) in three stages: mild (Prathama Mada), moderate (Dvitiya Mada), and severe (Tritiya Mada). In mild intoxication, a person feels happy and talkative. In moderate intoxication, there is loss of coordination and judgment. In severe intoxication, there is loss of consciousness, vomiting, and potentially dangerous behavior. Chronic excessive alcohol use leads to liver disease, weakened digestion, emaciation, mental disorders, skin diseases, and premature death. The proper use of alcohol is described as: in small doses, with food, by a person of strong constitution, and preferably as a medicine rather than for recreation. Alcohol is contraindicated in Pitta constitution, during hot season, in pregnancy, in children, in the elderly with weak digestion, and in those with inflammatory conditions.

Properties of Buffalo Butter

माहिषनवनीतम्

Buffalo butter (Mahishi Navanita) is described as sweet in taste, cold in potency, heavier and more unctuous than cow butter. It is more nourishing (Brumhana) but also harder to digest. It increases Kapha more than cow butter. It is aphrodisiac and provides more bulk/nourishment. However, being excessively heavy, it is not recommended for those with weak digestion. It increases unctuousness in the body and is specifically useful for those who are emaciated or need to gain weight. Verse 3.

Properties of Buttermilk

तक्रगुणाः

Takra (buttermilk) is light, sour-astringent-sweet in taste, hot in potency, and has a sweet post-digestive effect. It is appetizing, digestive, absorbent, and alleviates both Vata and Kapha. It is specifically recommended in Grahani (IBS/sprue), Arsha (hemorrhoids), Shotha (edema), Pandu (anemia), Mutra-roga (urinary disorders), Atisara (diarrhea), Arochaka (anorexia), and Medoroga (obesity). The text famously states that buttermilk is the best remedy for disorders caused by Kapha and Vata. Unlike curd, buttermilk does not increase Kapha and is considered far more therapeutic. Verses 5-10.

Properties of Different Ghees — Seasonal Use

ऋतुघृतम्

The chapter describes how ghee should be consumed according to seasons: In Grishma (summer) — ghee with sugar and cold water is recommended to counteract the heat. In Varsha (rainy season) — ghee with Saindhava (rock salt) is beneficial as Agni is weak. In Sharad (autumn) — ghee with sweet substances is recommended. In Hemanta and Shishira (winter seasons) — ghee can be consumed liberally as digestive fire is strong. In Vasanta (spring) — moderate use of ghee with honey is recommended to counteract Kapha accumulation. The text emphasizes that ghee consumed in appropriate quantity according to season promotes health, while excessive use in any season can be harmful.

Properties of Dried Meat

शुष्कमांस

Shushka Mamsa (Dried Meat) has different properties from fresh meat. It is heavier and harder to digest. When meat is dried, it loses its unctuous quality and becomes dry and rough. It requires more digestive power. Dried and smoked meats were common preservation methods. While the nutritive value is retained, the ease of digestion is reduced. Verses: 55.

Properties of Fresh Cow Butter

गव्यनवनीतम्

Fresh cow butter (Gavya Navanita) is specifically praised. It is sweet in taste, cold in potency, and sweet in post-digestive effect. It is the best among all types of butter. It promotes strength, enhances complexion, is aphrodisiac, and is cardiotonic. It kindles the digestive fire (despite being cold in potency), promotes relish, and nourishes all the body tissues (dhatus). It is specifically recommended for consumption by children, the elderly, and those weakened by disease. Fresh cow butter consumed with rice is an excellent restorative food. Verses 2-3.

Properties of Old vs Fresh Meat

नवपुराणमांस

The chapter discusses the difference between fresh (Nava) and old/stale (Purana) meat. Fresh meat is lighter, easier to digest and more nourishing. Stale meat is heavier, harder to digest and may cause diseases. Meat should ideally be consumed fresh. Putrefied meat should never be consumed. The method of killing the animal and processing the meat also affects its therapeutic qualities. Verses: 55-56.

Properties of Water by Season

ऋतुजलम्

Water properties vary significantly by season. During Varsha Ritu (monsoon), rainwater is abundant but may be contaminated. In Sharad Ritu (autumn), water is purified by sunlight (Agastya star) and becomes the best quality. In Hemanta (early winter) and Shishira (late winter), water becomes cold and heavy. In Vasanta (spring), water is moderate. In Grishma (summer), water becomes warm and light. The text advises that the quality of available water should be matched to the season for optimal health. Water that has been exposed to sunlight during the day and moonlight at night (Sheetamshu) is considered specially beneficial.

Puffed Rice

लाजा

Laja (puffed/parched rice) is light, dry, sweet, cold in potency and absorbent. It relieves thirst, stops vomiting, and has a cooling effect. It is beneficial in conditions of burning sensation, excessive thirst, and nausea. Laja Manda (puffed rice water) is particularly recommended during fever and digestive disorders. It is easy to digest and helps in controlling diarrhea.

Pumpkin

कूष्माण्डी

Kushmandi/Kumhda (Pumpkin) is a large trailing vine vegetable. The fruits are large, round or oblong, orange to yellow. The flesh is thick, sweet, and fibrous. It is heavy, nourishing, and cooling. It is widely used as a vegetable. The seeds are also edible and nutritious. Chemical analysis shows Protein 25, Carotene 0.4, Fat 0.1, Carbohydrate 4-12%. Vitamins A and C are present. It is a good source of nutrition. Verses: 36.

Hogweed

पुनर्नवा

Punarnava is used both medicinally and as a vegetable in many parts of India. Its leaves are cooked as a pot herb. It is well known for its diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties. Verse: 24.

Quail

वर्तकमांस

Vartaka/Lava (Quail) meat is very light, dry and cooling. It is one of the lightest bird meats. It is useful in bleeding disorders and diarrhea. It is easy to digest and recommended for those with weak digestion. Quail meat is considered excellent for convalescents. Verses: 26.

Qualities Based on Terrain

जाङ्गलानूपजलम्

Water quality varies significantly based on the terrain or region (Desha). Water from Jangala Desha (dry, arid regions) is light, easily digestible, and generally wholesome. Water from Anupa Desha (marshy, wet regions) is heavy, sweet but may cause channel obstruction. Water from Sadharana Desha (moderate terrain) has balanced properties. The text emphasizes that one should preferentially use water that is natural to one's native region, as the body is habituated to it. Verses 26-29.

Rabbit

शशमांस

Shasha (Rabbit/Hare) meat is light, dry and cooling. It is astringent and sweet. It is an excellent absorbent and is used in diarrhea and similar conditions. Being a Jangala animal, its meat is easy to digest. It pacifies Vata and Pitta. Rabbit meat is considered among the lighter meats. Verses: 11.

Radish

मूलक

Mulaka (Radish/Mooli) is a common root vegetable grown extensively in winter season. The plant has white, fleshy, cylindrical root that grows 6-18 inches or more. The leaves are also eaten as a green vegetable. The root is pungent and slightly bitter. It kindles digestive fire and is useful in digestive disorders. It alleviates Vata. Fresh radish is light while stale or dried radish is heavy. The small white radish (Chhoti Mooli) is considered superior. Large radishes may be harder to digest. The leaves (Mooli ka saag) are also nutritious. Cooked radish is different from raw — cooking makes it lighter. Chemical analysis shows 70-100 grams contains significant Vitamin C and Raphanol. Verses: 62. Dose: As vegetable.

Radish Greens

मूलकपत्रम्

Radish leaves used as a green vegetable. Commonly eaten in India as 'mooli ka saag'. The leaves are pungent and slightly bitter. Verse: 22.

Ragasadava

रागषाडवम्

Ragasadava is a type of fermented fruit drink preparation. It involves mixing fruit juices with sugar and allowing mild fermentation. It has specific properties based on the fruit used. It is described as appetizing, digestive and refreshing. It should be consumed in appropriate quantities.

Rainwater in Seasons

आन्तरिक्षजलम्

Antariksha Jala (atmospheric/rainwater) varies in properties based on the season of collection. The text describes the ideal collection method: rainwater should be collected in clean gold, silver, or earthen vessels. Water collected during Sharad Ritu (autumn) when the sun and moon are both visible is considered the best variety of rainwater, known as Hansodaka. Rainwater properties change with seasons - it may become heavier or contaminated depending on the atmospheric conditions and the surface it contacts after falling. Verses 19-21.

Rapeseed/Toria Oil

कुसुम्भतैलम्

Kusumbha oil (safflower oil) is pungent in taste, hot and sharp in quality. It is useful in skin diseases and parasitic conditions. It is not commonly recommended for cooking due to its sharp and hot nature, but is used externally and in specific therapeutic formulations. The text mentions its use in removing skin impurities and blemishes. Verses: 19-20.

Rasala

रसाला

Rasala is a sweetened and flavored curd preparation (similar to Shrikhand). It is prepared by mixing thick curd with sugar, pepper, cardamom, and camphor. It is sweet and sour, heavy, unctuous, cold in potency, aphrodisiac, nourishing, and relishing. It increases Kapha. It is considered a delicacy and is recommended for those with strong digestion. Verse references: 41-45.

Rasapali Sugarcane

फाणिविकृतिः

Rasapali is described as a processed sugarcane product, being a variant of Phani. It shares properties with Phani but has some differences in consistency and taste based on the method of preparation. It is sweet and heavy.

Red Amaranth

रक्तशाक

Lal Marsa (Red Amaranth) is a common leafy vegetable available from early rains. The plant grows 1-3 feet tall and has red or reddish stems with ovate leaves. The leaves and stems are cooked as a vegetable. It is light, cooling and useful in Pitta disorders and bleeding conditions. The leaves are slightly astringent. It is commonly available and widely used. It matures in 15-30 days of sowing. Verses: 10-11.

Rhinoceros

खड्गमांस

Khadga (Rhinoceros) meat is described as light and hot. It is strengthening and pacifies Vata. Verses: 18.

Rice Flour Preparation

पिष्टकम्

Pishtaka preparations made from rice flour. These include various steamed and fried preparations. Rice flour preparations are generally lighter than whole rice preparations.

Rice Gruel

मण्डम्

Manda is the thin watery portion obtained from cooking rice. It is light, easily digestible, appetizing, absorbent, and relieves thirst. It is particularly beneficial in conditions of weak digestion, fever, and debility. Manda is considered the lightest among all rice preparations. It kindles digestive fire (Agni), is cardiotonic, and helps in conditions where heavy food cannot be tolerated. The preparation method involves cooking rice with excess water and straining out the liquid portion. Verse references: 1-2.

Rice Preparation with Sesame

तिलान्नम्

Rice or grain preparations made with sesame (Tila) are described. Sesame combined with rice makes the preparation heavier and more unctuous. It is beneficial for hair, skin, and as an aphrodisiac. However, it increases Pitta and should be consumed carefully in summer.

Rice Properties — Shali Paddy

शालि

Shali rice (Bhagavani/old stored rice) properties — sweet in taste, light, unctuous, cold in potency. It pacifies Pitta and Kapha when old, and is mildly Vata-aggravating in excess. The text recommends eating rice with ghee, milk or suitable accompaniments. Special varieties like Raktashali (red rice) have additional blood-building properties. The grain is best consumed after one year of storage. Methods of cooking — boiling, steaming, and making gruel (Peya/Vilepi) are described with their respective therapeutic values. Rice gruel (Peya) is the lightest and recommended in fever and acute illness. Verses: 7-9.

Rice with Curd

दध्यन्नम्

Rice mixed with curd (Dadhi Anna) is described as tasty, appetizing, and nourishing. It increases strength and is aphrodisiac. However, it is heavy and should not be consumed at night or by those with Kapha disorders. It is particularly beneficial in conditions with Vata aggravation.

Rice — Indian Millet

चीना

Cheena (Indian Millet/Proso Millet) — further described as a Kshudradhanya (minor grain). Light, dry, and cooling. Used in diarrhea and as a light cereal food. It is grown without irrigation in many parts of India. Verses: 57.

Rice — Shali varieties

शालि

Shali (Rice) is the primary grain described in Ayurveda. Many varieties are listed — Raktashali, Sakalama, Panduka, Shakunahruta, Sugandhi, Mahashali, Kardamaka, etc. Rice varieties are categorized by their growth patterns — Shali types grow in standing water and are harvested in winter. The text describes numerous sub-varieties including scented and colored types. Rice is the staple food of India and is considered ideal for daily consumption. Shali rice that is one year old (Purana Shali) is considered superior — it is lighter, more digestible, and better for therapeutic use. New rice is heavier and increases Kapha. Rice can be processed as regular boiled, parboiled (Ushnodaka Siddha), or puffed. Parboiled rice retains more nutrients. Rice is indicated in thirst, burning sensation, urinary disorders, and diarrhea. It is the best grain for sick persons and convalescents. Verses: 4-8.

Roasted Grain Flour

सक्तुः

Saktu (roasted/parched grain flour, commonly known as Sattu) is light, dry, cold, and has scraping properties. It relieves thirst and is strengthening. Barley Saktu is considered the best. Different types of Saktu are described based on the grain used - barley (Yava), wheat (Godhuma), and rice (Shali). It can be consumed mixed with water, milk, or other liquids. It is particularly useful in summer and in conditions of excessive heat.

Roasted Meat on Skewer

शूल्यम्

Shulya (meat roasted on skewers, similar to Kebab) is lighter than other meat preparations. It is appetizing and relishing. Direct fire roasting makes meat lighter and easier to digest compared to frying or curry preparations.

Rohu Fish

रोहितमांस

Rohita (Rohu) is a major freshwater fish of India. It is heavy, unctuous and nourishing. It is one of the most commonly eaten fish. It pacifies Vata. Verses: 44.

Rolled/Layered Bread

वर्तिरोटिका

Varti Roti / Valmakarotika (layered bread similar to Paratha) is heavier than plain Roti due to the added ghee/oil between layers. It is nourishing and strengthening but difficult to digest. Various stuffed versions with different fillings have different properties.

Chicken

कुक्कुटमांस

Kukkuta (Chicken/Rooster) meat is one of the most commonly consumed meats. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous and hot. It is highly nourishing, strengthening, spermatogenic and beneficial for the voice. It pacifies Vata significantly. The domestic fowl (Gramya Kukkuta) is heavier than wild fowl (Vanya Kukkuta). Rooster meat is considered superior to hen meat. It is useful in conditions of debility, weakness, loss of voice and Vata disorders. The meat of young chicken is lighter. Verses: 21-24.

Round Gourd

धेमासक

Tinda (Round Gourd) is a small round gourd vegetable. Commonly used in North Indian cooking. It is cooling and nourishing. Verse: 36.

Safflower Seeds

कुसुम्भ

Kusumbha (Safflower) is an oilseed crop. The flowers yield a red dye (used in cosmetics and textiles). The seeds yield oil used in cooking. The oil is light and pungent. The flowers have medicinal properties — used in menstrual disorders and skin diseases. Safflower oil is now recognized as heart-healthy due to high linoleic acid content. Verses: 85-86.

Sahajan Ki Phalli

शिग्रुफली

Drumstick pods are one of the most commonly used vegetable in South Indian sambar and curries. They are pungent, hot and light. They stimulate appetite, kill worms and pacify Vata. Verse: 23.

Sama

श्यामाक

Sama (Little Millet/Sama Rice) — consumed during Navratri fasting in many parts of India. It is light, astringent, and cooling. Often eaten during religious fasting as it is not classified as a regular grain. Verses: 57-58.

Samyava

संयावः

Samyava is a multi-layered sweet preparation made from refined flour, ghee, and sugar. It is heavy, unctuous, nourishing, and aphrodisiac. It is one of the elaborate sweet preparations described in the text.

Sandaki

सन्दकी

Sandaki is a fermented preparation made with mustard seeds. It is sour and pungent in taste, hot in potency, light, and sharp. It stimulates digestion, pacifies Kapha, and has anthelmintic properties. It combines the properties of mustard and fermentation. Verses: 8-9.

Saras Water

सरसजलम्

Saras Jala (natural spring or pond water) has properties intermediate between river water and lake water. Natural springs emerging from mountains carry mineral properties. The text distinguishes between various types of natural water bodies and their therapeutic utility. Clean spring water with natural filtration through rocks is considered light and wholesome.

Sarasija Water

सारसजलम्

Sarasa Jala refers to water from ponds or lakes where lotus flowers grow. Such water is considered to be purified by the presence of lotus plants and is sweet, light, and wholesome. The lotus itself has purifying properties and water in contact with its roots, stems, and leaves acquires medicinal qualities. This type of water is particularly beneficial for Pitta conditions and is satiating.

Sal Oil

सर्जरसतैलम्

Sarjirasa oil (Sal oil) is astringent and bitter in taste, cold in potency. It has astringent action and is useful in skin diseases and parasitic conditions. It is not commonly used for cooking but has specific therapeutic applications in skin disorders. Verses: 20.

Sarson

सिद्धार्थतैलम्

White mustard oil (Siddhartha Taila) has properties similar to regular mustard oil but is considered somewhat milder. It is pungent, hot, and sharp. It pacifies Kapha, destroys worms, and stimulates digestion. Verses: 22.

Sattva

सत्त्वम्

Sattva refers to the starch or essence extracted from grains or other food substances. It is lighter than the whole grain preparation and is nourishing and cooling. Different types of starch extracts are described.

Sattvic Diet

Sattvik Food with Ghee

सपदि मन्थनम्

Sapadi Manthana refers to rice or grain preparations stirred with ghee. This is considered nourishing and strengthening. The combination of cooked grains with ghee enhances the nutritive value and makes the food easier to digest while providing unctuousness to the body.

Sauvarchala and Maireya

मैरेयम्

Maireya is a fermented alcoholic beverage prepared from various ingredients including jaggery, honey, and herbs. It is sour and sweet in taste, hot in potency, sharp, and penetrating. It stimulates digestion, promotes relish, pacifies Vata, and produces intoxication (Mada). It is described as having both therapeutic and recreational uses. When properly prepared and used in appropriate doses, it can serve as a medicine. In excess, it causes intoxication and harm. Verses: 9-10.

Sauvira

सौवीरम्

Sauvira (also called Kanjika) is a fermented preparation made from barley or rice. It is sour, light, dry, and hot in potency. It is appetizing, digestive, and helps in alleviating Kapha dosha. It is used both as a food and as a therapeutic preparation.

Sauviraka

सौवीरकम्

Sauviraka is a type of fermented preparation made from barley or other grains. It is sour in taste, light, and hot in potency. It promotes appetite (Deepana), creates relish for food (Rochana), is absorbent (Grahi), and is cardiotonic (Hridya). It is similar to Kanji but lighter and more easily digestible. It is useful in digestive disorders and as a regular beverage during meals to improve digestion. Verses: 6-8.

Savoury Fried Preparation

वटी

Vati/Vataka (fried preparations like Vada) are prepared from pulses or grains, shaped into balls or patties and deep-fried. They are heavy, unctuous, and difficult to digest. They increase Kapha dosha and should be consumed by those with strong digestive fire.

Savoury Spiced Rice

टेयरः

Teyara is a savoury rice preparation. It is a type of spiced rice preparation that includes various condiments and spices. Properties depend on the specific spices used in preparation.

Sea Fish

समुद्रमत्स्य

Samudra Matsya (Sea Fish) are generally heavier than freshwater fish. They tend to be saltier and more unctuous. They are very nourishing and pacify Vata. Sea fish are rich in oils. They are commonly consumed in coastal regions. The larger sea fish are heavier than smaller ones. Verses: 46.

Seasonal Guidelines for Curd

दधिऋतुनियमः

The text provides strict seasonal guidelines for curd consumption: (1) Curd should be freely consumed in Hemanta (early winter) and Shishira (late winter) - the cold seasons when its heating property is beneficial; (2) In Vasanta (spring), curd may be consumed with honey, sugar, or Amalaki to counter its Kapha-increasing property; (3) In Grishma (summer), curd should be consumed with sugar to prevent Pitta aggravation; (4) In Varsha (monsoon), curd may be consumed with Pippali (long pepper) and honey; (5) In Sharad (autumn), curd should be strictly AVOIDED as Pitta is naturally aggravated in this season and curd would worsen it. The text states: curd should never be consumed at night, never heated, never without additives (sugar, ghee, honey, Amalaki, or green gram). Verses 9-15.

Semolina Preparation

समिता

Samita (semolina/Suji) preparation. The preparation method involves cooking semolina with ghee and water or milk. It is lighter than whole wheat preparations and easier to digest. It is strengthening and nourishing. Verse reference: 21.

Sesame

तिल

Tila (Sesame) is described as one of the most important oilseeds in Ayurveda. It is sacred and used in religious rituals (Pitru Tarpana). Three varieties are described based on color: black (Krishna Tila — best), white (Shveta Tila), and red/brown. Black sesame is considered the most potent medicinally. Sesame is hot, heavy, and unctuous. It is excellent for hair, skin, teeth, and bones. Sesame oil (Til Tel) is the primary massage oil in Ayurveda and base for many medicated oils. Seeds are used in making preparations like Tilkut, Gajak, etc. It increases digestive fire and is useful in Vata disorders. However, excess consumption aggravates Pitta and Kapha. It is one of the richest natural sources of calcium. Sesame paste (Tahini) is nourishing. The oil is slow to go rancid due to natural antioxidants (sesamol). Dose: Oil externally — as needed; seeds as food. Chemical composition: oil 45-55%, protein, vitamins, minerals. Verses: 69-75.

Sesame Leaves

तिलशाक

Sesame leaves used as a vegetable. They have properties similar to sesame seeds — heavy, oily, hot and nourishing. Verse: 30.

Sesame Oil

तिलतैलम्

Sesame oil (Tila Taila) is considered the best among all oils in Ayurveda. It is described as being sweet, bitter, and astringent in taste, hot in potency with sweet post-digestive effect. It is unctuous, penetrating, and heavy. Sesame oil is excellent for the skin (Tvachya), promotes hair growth (Keshya), strengthens the body (Balya), enhances intellect (Medhya), kindles digestive fire, cleanses wounds, and destroys parasites. It is the primary oil used in Panchakarma therapies, especially Abhyanga (oil massage) and Basti (enema). It pacifies Vata dosha while not excessively aggravating Kapha. It penetrates into minute channels (Sukshma Srotasa). Sesame oil is beneficial in skin diseases, hair problems, wound healing, and strengthening bones and teeth. It is the oil of choice for cooking in Ayurveda. Black sesame seeds yield the most therapeutically valued oil. The text notes that all types of sesame oil — whether from white, black, or brown seeds — share similar properties, though black sesame oil is considered superior. Verses: 1-2, 10-11.

Shadava

षाडवम्

Shadava is a condiment preparation that contains all six tastes (Shadrasa). It is appetizing, relishing, and enhances the taste of food. It helps in balancing the overall taste of a meal. Various recipes for Shadava are described.

Sharkara — Detailed Properties

शर्कराविस्तारः

Sharkara ('Cheeni' in common parlance) is crystallized sugar obtained through the complete refining process of sugarcane juice. It is lighter and drier than jaggery. The text describes that sugar purifies blood, is cooling, aphrodisiac, and beneficial for the eyes. Old sugar is better than new sugar. Sugar alleviates Pitta and Vata doshas. It is used extensively as a pharmaceutical excipient and sweetener in Ayurvedic medicine. Sugar mixed with water makes a cooling drink (Sharkara Panaka) used in summer and in Pitta conditions. The commentary notes that the Chinese variety of sugar became available in India and was called 'Cheeni' after China. Verse 30.

Shashkuli

शशकुली

Shashkuli (similar to Chiroti or Shakkarpara) is a layered, fried sweet preparation. It is prepared from refined flour, fried until crispy, and then coated or filled with sugar. It is lighter than many other sweet preparations. Verse reference: 125.

Shatapori-Kechuka Ikshu Properties

शतपोरीकेचुकेक्षुगुणाः

Additional varieties of sugarcane are described, including Shatapori and Kechuka types. These have varying degrees of sweetness, different colored juice, and distinct therapeutic applications. Some varieties are more cooling, others more nourishing. The chapter discusses how location, soil, water, and climate affect the quality and properties of sugarcane and its products. Verse 9.

Sheep

अविकमांस

Avika (Sheep/Mutton) meat is heavier than goat meat. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous and hot in potency. It particularly pacifies Vata but may increase Kapha and Pitta. It is nourishing and strengthening. Sheep meat is more fatty than goat meat. It is useful in conditions of Vata aggravation. However, it should be consumed in moderation due to its heaviness. Verses: 14.

Sheep Milk

आविकदुग्धम्

Sheep milk (Avika Dugdha) is unique among milks in having hot potency (Ushna Virya). It is heavy, unctuous, and sweet. It alleviates Vata but may aggravate Pitta and Kapha. It is beneficial in hiccups and Vata disorders. However, due to its heating nature, it should be used cautiously. It is not commonly used therapeutically compared to cow's and goat's milk. Verse 13.

Sheep Urine

अविकमूत्रम्

Sheep urine (Avika Mutra) is pungent and salty in taste, hot in potency. It is specifically indicated for hiccups (Hikka) and dyspnea (Shwasa). Verses: 7-8.

Shimbi Dhanya Properties

शिम्बीधान्य

General properties of Shimbidhanya (pulses/legumes): Most pulses are astringent and sweet in taste, dry and light, cooling, and have Katu Vipaka. Most pulses aggravate Vata due to dryness and are Kapha-Pitta pacifying. Mudga (green gram) is the exception being Tridosha-pacifying. Pulses should be cooked with ghee or oil to mitigate their Vata-aggravating property. The text establishes a hierarchy of pulses from lightest to heaviest. Verses: 34.

Shrikhand

श्रीखण्डम्

The text references thick, strained curd preparations (Chakka/Shrikhand) as heavy, nourishing, and strengthening. When mixed with sugar and spices, these become delicious dessert preparations. They are nourishing and aphrodisiac but heavy to digest. They should be consumed in moderate quantities by persons with good digestive fire.

Prawn

चिपिटमांस

Prawns and shrimps are aquatic creatures. Their meat is heavy, unctuous, hot and nourishing. They are particularly noted for aphrodisiac properties. They increase Kapha. Verses: 45.

Shukta

शुक्तम्

Shukta (vinegar) is a sour fermented preparation made from various fruits, grains, or sugarcane. It is sour in taste, hot in potency, sharp, and penetrating. It stimulates digestion, relieves colic pain (Shoola), and pacifies Vata and Kapha. Different types of Shukta are prepared from different base materials — Dhanyamla (grain vinegar), Phala Amla (fruit vinegar), and Ikshu Amla (sugarcane vinegar). Shukta is more mature and sour than Kanji. It is used both as a food item and as a therapeutic preparation. Excessive use can aggravate Pitta and Rakta (blood disorders). Verses: 4-6.

Shyamaka

श्यामाक

Shyamaka (Barnyard Millet) is a rain-season crop grown in wet areas. It is used as a substitute grain during famine or in hilly regions. It is light, cooling, and absorbent. Mainly consumed in tribal and rural areas. It grows in marshy places and is similar in appearance to rice but with different nutritional properties. Verses: 57.

Sidhu

सीधुः

Sidhu is a wine prepared from sugarcane juice through fermentation. It is sweet and sour in taste, hot in potency, and light. It pacifies Vata, stimulates digestion, promotes appetite, is cardiotonic, and strengthening. Among all alcoholic preparations, Sidhu is considered one of the better options for therapeutic use due to its sweetness and relatively milder intoxicating properties. It is nourishing and less harmful than grain-based Sura. Old Sidhu is considered better than freshly prepared one. The text also describes variations like Sharkara Sidhu (prepared from sugar) and Guda Sidhu (prepared from jaggery). Verses: 15-17.

Sidhu Manasaraka

सिन्धुमांसरकम्

A sour meat broth preparation made with meat and sour ingredients. It is lighter than regular meat curry and aids digestion. It is appetizing and beneficial in conditions of weak digestion.

Sindhu Namasraka

सिन्धुनामस्रकः

Sindhu Namasraka is a spiced condiment preparation. It is described as having appetizing and digestive properties. Various spiced preparations used as accompaniments to main food are described in this section.

Small Bitter Gourd

कारवेल्लक

Smaller variety of bitter gourd. Properties similar to the larger variety but milder. Verse: 26.

Small Purslane

लघुलोणिका

Chhoti Lonia is a smaller variety of Purslane. It is found growing as a weed in moist places. Its properties are similar to the larger variety but it is smaller in size with smaller leaves. It is used in similar conditions as garden purslane but considered slightly inferior. Verse: 14.

Smooth Gourd

जांगलीतोरई

A variety of ridge gourd. Similar properties but slight variations. Verse: 38.

Snake

सर्पमांस

Sarpa (Snake) meat is described among burrowing animal meats. It is light and hot. It is said to pacify Vata and counteract poison effects. Snake meat was used in specific therapeutic formulations in classical Ayurveda. Verses: 19.

Snake Cucumber

कर्कटी

Kakdi (Snake Cucumber) is a common vegetable/fruit consumed raw or cooked. The plant is a trailing or climbing vine. The fruits are cylindrical, elongated, light green. They are cooling, diuretic and quench thirst. They are heavy for digestion. Used in summer for their cooling properties. Verses: 27.

Snake Gourd

चिचिण्ड

Chichinda (Snake Gourd) is a large climbing vegetable plant. The fruits are very long (1-5 feet), twisted like a snake, green with white stripes. They are commonly cooked as a vegetable. It is cooling and good for the heart. The young tender fruits are preferred. Verses: 32.

Soaked/Moistened Preparation

प्रोक्षितम्

Prokshita refers to grains or preparations that have been soaked or moistened with water. Soaked preparations are lighter than dry preparations and easier to digest. Different types of soaking methods and their effects on the properties of grains are described.

Sour

अम्लदधि

Amla Dadhi (sour/well-fermented curd) is properly set curd with full sourness. It is hot in potency and increases Pitta and Kapha. While it is appetizing and strengthening, excessive sourness indicates over-fermentation which vitiates blood (Rakta) and aggravates Pitta. The text advises moderation in consuming very sour curd. Verses 7-9.

Sparrow

चटकमांस

Chataka (Sparrow) meat is heavy, unctuous and hot. It is particularly noted for its aphrodisiac properties. It is nourishing. Verses: 28.

Spinach

पालक्य

Palakya (Spinach) grows in winter season. It is a common leafy vegetable used throughout India. The leaves are succulent, soft and spinach-green in color. The plant grows 1-2 feet tall. It is cool in nature, heavy for digestion, and acts as a mild laxative. It is useful in conditions of excess Pitta and Rakta (blood) disorders. Rich in iron and other minerals. Contains Iodine, Lecithin, Carotin, Oxalic acid, and traces of Arsenic. It helps relieve constipation and is beneficial in eye problems (due to Carotin). The juice may cause stones if consumed in excess due to Oxalic acid content. Verses: 9.

Spotted Deer

पृषतमांस

Prishata (Spotted Deer/Chital) meat is very light, dry and cooling. It balances all three doshas. Among deer species, it is considered one of the best. It is an excellent absorbent. Verses: 20.

Stale Butter and Rancid Butter

पुराणनवनीतम्

Old or stale butter (Purana Navanita) has different properties from fresh butter. When butter becomes old, it turns sour and develops a bad odor. Its properties change from cold to hot potency. Old butter increases Kapha and is hard to digest. It loses its beneficial properties and can cause digestive problems. Therefore, fresh butter (Nava Navanita) is always preferred over old butter. The text emphasizes that butter should be consumed fresh (the same day or within a day of preparation) for maximum benefit. Verse 4.

Steamed Dumpling

पिष्टकम्

Pishta/Modaka (steamed dumplings made from rice or wheat flour, stuffed with coconut, jaggery, etc.) is sweet, heavy, unctuous, nourishing and aphrodisiac. Various types of Modaka are described based on filling and method of preparation. They are heavy to digest and increase Kapha.

Sthula Shali — Red Rice

रक्तशालि

Raktashali (Red Rice) is a highly valued variety with reddish grains. It is considered the best among Shali varieties for medicinal use. It is sweet, cooling, light, and particularly nourishing for the blood (Raktavardhaka). It is recommended in weakness, convalescence, and blood disorders. The Shashtika Shali (60-day maturing rice) is a sub-variety particularly used in Pinda Sweda (bolus therapy). Verses: 13-14.

Sugar Candy

खण्डशर्करा

Sita (sugar candy / Mishri) is the most refined and purified form of sugar. It is sweet, cold, light, and considered the best among all sugarcane products for Pitta-related conditions. It alleviates Pitta and Vata, relieves burning sensation, thirst, bleeding disorders, and vomiting. Sita (Mishri) is widely used as a vehicle (Anupana) for many medicines and is a key ingredient in numerous Ayurvedic formulations. It is recommended as the ideal sweetener for those with Pitta constitution or Pitta-predominant disorders. Verses 16-18.

Sugar — Properties

शर्करा

Sharkara (crystallized sugar) is prepared from sugarcane juice through repeated boiling, straining, and crystallization. It is sweet, cold in potency, lighter than jaggery, and has drying (Ruksha) quality. It is beneficial for the eyes, aphrodisiac, anti-emetic, and relieves bleeding disorders, thirst, and burning sensation. Sharkara pacifies Pitta and Vata doshas. It is considered more refined and lighter than Guda, making it suitable for those with weaker digestion. Among sugar varieties, old sugar (Purana Sharkara) is considered better. White refined sugar (Sita) is the purest form and is the lightest and most Pitta-pacifying of all sugarcane products. Verses 13-15.

Sugarcane Juice

इक्षुरसः

Fresh sugarcane juice (Ikshu Rasa) is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and cooling. It is highly nourishing, strengthening, aphrodisiac, and diuretic. It promotes lactation and is beneficial in conditions of debility, emaciation, and burning sensation. Fresh sugarcane juice spoils rapidly, so it should be consumed soon after extraction. When sugarcane juice ferments or becomes sour, it becomes harmful — increasing Pitta and producing Ama. Fresh sugarcane juice alleviates Pitta and Vata. It is especially useful in Mutrakrichra (dysuria), Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), and conditions of debility. Varieties of sugarcane produce juice of varying sweetness and properties. Verses 3-5.

Sugarcane Juice Preparation

इक्षुरसः

Food preparations made with sugarcane juice are sweet, heavy, cold in potency, nourishing, diuretic, and aphrodisiac. They increase Kapha but alleviate Vata and Pitta. Different preparations using sugarcane juice, jaggery, and sugar are described with their specific properties.

Sugarcane Varieties — Kantara Ikshu

कान्तारेक्षु

Kantara Ikshu (wild sugarcane) is described with certain properties different from cultivated sugarcane. The Kantara variety produces juice that is drier, less sweet, and has more astringent taste. Its synonyms include Pundra and other regional names. It is used in specific therapeutic contexts where cultivated sugarcane juice may not be appropriate. Verse 7.

Sugarcane — Names and General Properties

इक्षुः

Sugarcane (Ikshu) is described with many synonyms including Deerghacchada, Guda-truna, Bhurirasa, and Asipatra. Its botanical source is Saccharum officinarum Linn. of the family Gramineae (Poaceae). Sugarcane is found in all warm regions of India, with about 12 recognized varieties used for commercial and medicinal purposes. It produces various types of juice, sugar, and jaggery. The sugarcane plant is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is aphrodisiac, nourishing, diuretic, and laxative. It increases Kapha. Multiple varieties of sugarcane are known, with different colors and properties of the cane and juice. The sugar cane juice extraction methods and subsequent processing into various products (guda, sharkara, khanda) are described. Verses 1-2.

Sukta Preparations — Specific Types

शुक्तप्रकाराः

The chapter describes several specific types of Shukta (vinegar) preparations including: Kanjika Shukta (rice-based vinegar), Ikshu Shukta (sugarcane vinegar), Phala Shukta (fruit vinegar), and Dhanya Shukta (grain vinegar). Each type has slightly different properties based on its source material. Sugarcane vinegar is sweeter and less sharp, while grain vinegar is more sour and heating. Fruit vinegars combine the properties of the specific fruit with the benefits of fermentation. The text notes that vinegar preparations should be stored properly in clean vessels and protected from contamination. Improperly fermented or contaminated Shukta can cause digestive disorders and should be discarded.

Summary of Dadhi Varga Dietary Rules

दधिवर्गआहारनियमः

The chapter concludes with a summary of key dietary rules for all fermented dairy products: (1) Curd should not be consumed at night, in autumn, or when heated; (2) Buttermilk is the most therapeutic fermented dairy product and can be consumed more freely; (3) Fresh butter is best consumed fresh, not stored; (4) Ghee is the safest dairy fat and suitable for year-round use; (5) Ghee and honey should never be mixed in equal quantities; (6) All dairy products should ideally come from healthy, well-fed cows; (7) Incompatible combinations with dairy (fish, sour fruits, etc.) must be strictly avoided; (8) The degree of fermentation significantly affects the properties of curd - properly set curd is therapeutic while under-set or over-fermented curd is harmful.

Sura

सुरा

Sura is a grain-based alcoholic beverage, similar to beer or grain wine. It is prepared by fermenting rice, barley, or other grains with specific herbs and Kinva (fermenting agents/yeast). Sura is classified into several types: Madhulika Sura (honey-based), Gaudi Sura (jaggery-based), Paishti Sura (flour-based), and others. Properties include sour, sweet, and astringent taste, hot potency, and it is light, sharp, and penetrating. It kindles digestive fire, promotes appetite, pacifies Vata, causes intoxication, is absorbent, and has scraping (Lekhana) action. It is useful in digestive disorders, Vata diseases, and as a vehicle for certain medicines. However, excessive use leads to numerous diseases. The preparation method involves cooking grain, adding Kinva (yeast/ferment), and allowing fermentation in earthen vessels for specified periods. Sura that is properly fermented is clear and has a pleasant aroma. Immature Sura (under-fermented) and over-fermented Sura are both harmful. Verses: 10-14.

Swamp Cabbage

कलम्बी

Kalami Shak (Swamp Cabbage/Water Spinach) is an aquatic or semi-aquatic plant growing in marshy areas, ditches and ponds. The hollow stems and leaves are cooked as a vegetable. It is commonly used in eastern India and Southeast Asian cuisine. It is light, cooling and slightly laxative. Verses: 12.

Swan

हंसमांस

Hamsa (Swan/Goose) meat is heavy, unctuous and cooling. It is nourishing, strengthening and promotes semen. Being an aquatic/swimming bird, its meat is heavier than land birds. Verses: 29-30.

Sweet

मधुरदधि

Madhura Dadhi (sweet/incompletely set curd, also called Mandaka) is curd that has not fully fermented and retains sweetness. It is heavy, increases Kapha, and is difficult to digest. It does not have the beneficial absorbent (Grahi) properties of properly set curd. Incompletely fermented curd is considered unwholesome and can aggravate all three doshas. The text strongly advises against consuming half-set curd. Verses 5-7.

Sweet Cake

अपूपः

Apupa (sweet cake, similar to Malpua) is a fried sweet preparation made from wheat or rice flour with jaggery or sugar. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, nourishing, and aphrodisiac. It increases Kapha dosha. Being deep-fried and sweet, it is difficult to digest and should be consumed in moderation.

Sweet Potato

आलुक

Aluk (Sweet Potato/Yam type tuber) is a starchy root vegetable. It is sweet, heavy, cooling and nourishing. It increases body bulk and strength. Excessive consumption may cause flatulence. Verse: 40.

Sword Bean

शिम्बी

Shimbi (Sword Bean) is a large bean pod vegetable. The pods are broad, 6-12 inches long, with large seeds. The young pods are cooked as a vegetable. They are slightly heavy and cooling. Verses: 40.

Synonyms of Water

जलनामानि

Water is known by numerous Sanskrit synonyms. The text enumerates these names to establish the identity of water in classical literature. Water is fundamental to all life processes and is considered the basis of Rasa (taste) itself.

Tadaga Water

तडागजलम्

Tadaga Jala (large tank/reservoir water) is described separately from smaller ponds. Large tanks that receive continuous inflow from rivers or springs have better water quality. The text notes that Tadaga water with lotus and fish is considered clean. It is generally heavy but wholesome when the tank is well-maintained. Stagnant tank water without inflow becomes Dushta (contaminated) and should be purified before use. Verses 33-35.

Takra as a Fermented Preparation

तक्रम्

While Takra (buttermilk) is described in detail in its own varga, it is also referenced in the Sandhana Varga as an important fermented preparation. Takra is described as sour and astringent in taste, hot in potency, light, and with sweet post-digestive effect. It is one of the most valued fermented beverages in Ayurveda — called 'Amrita' (nectar) for its therapeutic value. It kindles digestion, is absorbent, useful in hemorrhoids, and reduces inflammation. When properly prepared by churning yogurt with water, it is easily digestible and beneficial for almost all constitutions.

Takra Preparations

तक्रम्

Various preparations made with buttermilk (Takra/Chhachh). Buttermilk is light, sour, astringent, hot in potency, appetizing, absorbent, and alleviates Vata. Different types of buttermilk preparations are described - plain (without cream), half-churned, fully churned, and spiced varieties. Each has specific properties and therapeutic applications. Buttermilk is considered one of the best digestive aids.

Tandula Preparation

तण्डुलम्

Tandula (husked but uncooked rice) based preparations. Different methods of cooking rice are described - boiling, steaming, and pressure cooking. The water-to-rice ratio determines whether the result is Anna (rice), Yavagu (gruel), or Manda (rice water). The quality of rice - old vs new, variety, etc. - affects the final preparation's properties.

Tanduliyaka Preparation

तण्डुलीयकम्

Tanduliyaka is the water obtained from washing rice. It is light, cooling, absorbent, and relieves thirst. It is used therapeutically in conditions of excessive thirst, burning sensation, and diarrhea. It is one of the lightest preparations described.

Tapeshu Properties

तापसेक्षुगुणाः

Tapeshu is described with synonyms including Bhomeshu. It has properties similar to regular sugarcane but with some variations. It is sweet, cold, and nourishing. Used in specific regional preparations. Verse 10.

The Negro Coffee

कासमर्द

Kasundi/Kasamarda is used as a leafy vegetable. The plant is a shrub with compound leaves. The leaves are used in cough and as a vegetable. It has bitter taste and is hot in potency. Contains Toxalbumin (Emodin) and Chrysorobin. It alleviates cough and improves digestion. Verses: 29.

The Six Tastes

Therapeutic Applications of Honey

मधुप्रयोग

Honey is described as one of the most versatile medicinal substances. Its Yogavahi property makes it an ideal vehicle (Anupana) for other medicines, enhancing their absorption and efficacy. Key therapeutic applications include: (1) In Kapha disorders — cough, cold, asthma — honey acts as an excellent vehicle and has direct Kapha-reducing action; (2) In eye diseases — both internal use and external application (in Anjana/collyrium preparations); (3) In wound management — honey cleanses, debrides, and promotes healing of wounds and ulcers; (4) In obesity and Prameha — old honey with its scraping action helps reduce excess fat and manage diabetes; (5) As an Anupana (vehicle) — honey is the best vehicle for Kapha-reducing medicines; (6) In vomiting therapy (Vamana) — honey water is used as an emetic preparation. Honey also has preservative qualities and is used in many pharmaceutical preparations (Lehya, Avalehya). Verses 1-20.

Therapeutic Uses of Milk

दुग्धप्रयोगः

Milk is used therapeutically in numerous conditions: (1) Kshaya/Shosha (consumption/wasting) - milk is the primary treatment; (2) Amlapitta (acid peptic disorder) - cold milk neutralizes acid; (3) Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) - cow's milk and goat's milk are excellent; (4) Jwara (chronic fever) - milk as a nourishing drink; (5) Garbhini Paricharya (pregnancy care) - milk is essential; (6) Bala Roga (pediatric conditions) - goat's milk is preferred; (7) As Anupana (vehicle) with medicines like Shatavari, Ashwagandha; (8) In Panchakarma as Virechana Dravya with purgative herbs; (9) Externally as Parisheka (pouring) in burns and Pitta conditions.

Therapeutic Uses of Water

जलचिकित्सा

Water is used therapeutically in numerous ways: (1) Parisheka (sprinkling/affusion) with cold water in Pitta disorders and burns; (2) Avagaha (immersion bath) in various conditions; (3) Snana (bathing) for hygiene and therapeutic purposes; (4) As Anupana (vehicle) for various medicines; (5) Medicated waters (water boiled with herbs) for specific conditions. The text mentions that water is the best Jivaniya (life-sustaining) substance and the foremost among Tarpana (satiating) substances. Proper use of water is essential for maintaining health, while improper use can lead to numerous disorders.

Thick Gruel

विलेपी

Vilepi (also called Vilepi or thick gruel) is prepared with less water and more rice, resulting in a thick, paste-like consistency. It is heavier than Peya, more nourishing and strengthening. It is absorbent (Grahi) and beneficial in diarrhea and conditions with excessive fluid loss. It is unctuous, strength-giving, and particularly useful for those who need nourishment but cannot tolerate solid food.

Thin Gruel

पेया

Peya is a thin gruel prepared with more water and less rice grains. It is light, appetizing, digestive, and helps in normalizing the downward movement of Vata. It induces perspiration and is beneficial in fever, thirst, and weakness of digestive fire. Peya is heavier than Manda but lighter than Vilepi (thick gruel). It is recommended in the initial stages of Panchakarma therapy and during convalescence.

Tiger

व्याघ्रमांस

Vyaghra (Tiger) meat described among carnivorous animal meats. Historical reference — not recommended for consumption in modern practice. Verses: 19.

Time-based Variations of Milk

दुग्धकालभेदः

The text describes how milk properties change based on time of milking: morning milk is lighter than evening milk. Milk from the first milking after the calf has suckled is considered best. The properties also change with the season - cow's milk in winter is heavier and more nourishing, while in summer it is comparatively lighter. Milk from a cow that has been well-fed on green grass is more nourishing than from a cow on dry fodder. The quality of milk varies with the breed of cow, its diet, health condition, age, and the season. Verses 9-20.

Turtle

कूर्ममांस

Kurma (Tortoise/Turtle) meat is heavy, unctuous and cooling. It is particularly beneficial for the eyes. It is strengthening and nourishing. It is considered one of the heavier aquatic meats. Verses: 46.

Turnip

ग्रुञ्जन

Grunjana (Turnip/Shalgam) is a root vegetable of the mustard family. It has a rounded, fleshy white root. It is pungent, bitter and hot in potency. It is used as a winter vegetable. It stimulates appetite and alleviates Vata. Verse: 63.

Tushodaka

तुषोदकम्

Tushodaka is a fermented preparation made from rice husks soaked in water and allowed to ferment. It is sour in taste, hot in potency, light, and sharp. It stimulates digestion, pacifies Vata, and reduces inflammation (Shotha). It is lighter than Kanji and more easily digestible. Tushodaka is particularly recommended for those with very weak digestion who cannot tolerate heavier fermented preparations. It is also used as a washing agent for wounds and as a medium for preparing some medicines. Verses: 3-4.

Tuvaraka

तुवरकतैलम्

Tuvaraka oil (Chaulmoogra oil) is described as pungent and bitter in taste, hot in potency, sharp and penetrating. It has historically been one of the most important oils for Kushtha (leprosy/chronic skin diseases). It is used externally for application on skin lesions and also internally in specific formulations for stubborn skin conditions. The oil has strong anti-dermatosis properties and was historically used across Asia for the treatment of Hansen's disease. Verses: 17-19.

Types of Buttermilk

तक्रभेदः

The text describes several types of buttermilk based on preparation method: (1) Ghola - curd churned without adding water, with butter not removed (whole churned curd); (2) Mathita - curd churned with half water and butter removed; (3) Takra - curd churned with one-quarter water and butter removed; (4) Udashvit - curd churned with one-quarter water but butter not removed; (5) Chhachhi - thin buttermilk with more water. Each type has slightly different properties. Takra proper (butter removed, one-quarter water) is considered the most therapeutic. The text provides the specific ratios and methods. Verses 1-4.

Types of Buttermilk by Fat Content

तक्रभेदाः

Buttermilk is classified into different types based on the amount of fat (cream/butter) removed and water added during preparation. The main types are: (1) Ghola — curd churned without adding water and without removing butter, which is heavy; (2) Mathita — curd churned without water but with butter partially removed; (3) Takra — curd churned with one-quarter water added and butter fully removed, which is the best form; (4) Udashvit — curd churned with half water added. The properties vary: Ghola is heavier and more nourishing, while Takra (with butter fully removed and quarter water added) is the lightest and most therapeutically potent. The more water added and the more fat removed, the lighter the buttermilk becomes. Verses 3-6.

Vamshalochana

वंशलोचनम्

Vamshalochana (Bamboo manna or Tabasheer) is a siliceous deposit found inside bamboo internodes. Though not directly a sugarcane product, it is discussed in this varga due to its association with grass family products. It is sweet and astringent in taste, light, dry, and cold in potency. It pacifies Pitta, Kapha, and blood disorders. It relieves burning sensation, thirst, cough, asthma, and is strengthening and aphrodisiac. It is a key ingredient in the famous formulation Sitopaladi Churna. Verse 9.

Vansha Bija Seeds

वंशबीज

Vansha Bija (Bamboo Seeds/Bamboo Rice) — seeds produced during mass bamboo flowering events. These events occur every 40-60 years. The seeds are edible and quite nutritious. They are considered a famine food in tribal areas. Bamboo rice is heavy and nourishing. It is occasionally available in markets. Verses: 63.

Vapita Rice

वापितशालि

Vapita Shali (transplanted rice) — rice that is grown from transplanted seedlings. It is heavier than directly sown rice. Its properties are slightly different from Shali grown by direct seeding. Verses: 12.

Vapy Water

वापीजलम्

Vapy Jala (step-well water) refers to water from constructed step-wells (Vapi), which were common water sources in ancient India. This water has properties similar to well water but may be influenced by the construction materials of the step-well and exposure to sunlight and air. The text notes that well-maintained Vapi with clean surroundings provides wholesome water. Verses 42-45.

Various Animal Parts - Liver, Brain, Bone Marrow

अंगमांस

Different parts of the animal body have different properties. The head meat is heavy; tongue is fatty; heart meat is strengthening; liver (Yakrit) is nourishing and good for eyes; brain (Mastishka) is heavy and aphrodisiac; bone marrow (Majja) is very nourishing and aphrodisiac; blood is heating; fat is nourishing and lubricating. The hind quarters are lighter than front quarters. Tail meat is considered heavy. Skin is rough and hard to digest. Intestinal fat (Vapa) is lighter than body fat (Meda). Each organ/part has specific therapeutic applications. Verses: 55-65.

Various Fish Species - Detailed

मत्स्यभेद

Detailed description of various fish species: Rohita (Rohu), Pathina (Catfish), Shakula, Chilchima, Ilisha (Hilsa), and many others. Each has specific properties. River fish from fast-flowing rivers are lighter. Pond fish are heavier. Fish from clean water is preferred over that from polluted water. The fish caught by hook is preferred over net-caught fish. Boneless fish fillets are easier to digest than whole fish. Various species are categorized based on their habitat — river, lake, pond, sea, brackish water. Verses: 32-50.

Various Small Fish

क्षुद्रमत्स्य

Small fish (Kshudra Matsya) are described as lighter than large fish and easier to digest. They are appetizing and strengthening. Small fish eaten whole (with bones) provide calcium. Various types of small river and pond fish are mentioned. Verses: 40-45.

Various Types of Jaggery

गुडभेदाः

The text describes various stages and forms of jaggery produced during the boiling and processing of sugarcane juice. These include: (1) Guda — standard solidified jaggery; (2) Khanda — coarsely granulated sugar; (3) Matsyandika — a soft, semi-solid form of jaggery (like fudge); (4) Sharkara — crystallized sugar; (5) Sita — refined white sugar candy. Each progressive stage of processing yields a product that is lighter, drier, and more refined. The first boiling produces basic Guda, further processing and crystallization yields Khanda, and complete refinement produces Sharkara and Sita. The more refined the product, the lighter and easier to digest it becomes, but it may also lose some of the nutritive and therapeutic properties of the original jaggery.

Vegetable Chenopodium

पालक्य

Palakya refers to Spinach which grows widely in winter season. Additional details on its use as a vegetable. It is heavy, laxative, and cooling. Verse: 15.

Vegetable Curry Preparation

शाकम्

Various methods of cooking vegetables (Shaka) are described. Vegetables can be prepared as curry (with gravy), dry-roasted, fried, steamed, or mixed with other ingredients. The properties of the preparation depend on both the vegetable used and the method of cooking. Generally, cooked vegetables are easier to digest than raw ones. Addition of spices, oils and ghee modifies the properties of the preparation.

Veshavara/Mixed Preparation

वेशवारः

Veshavara is a mixed preparation where different ingredients are combined, shaped into balls or rolls, and cooked. Similar to modern Kofta preparations. These are heavy, nourishing, and described as relishing.

Vetasa

संवेदजशाक

This section describes the samsvedaja (moisture-born) category of vegetables including mushrooms, fungi and similar growths. They grow in moist environments, on decaying matter and in damp conditions. General properties and cautions about this category. Verses: 68.

Videshika/Foreign Bread

विदेशिका

Videshika refers to baked or specially prepared breads of foreign origin. The commentary mentions these as preparations that came from other regions. Their properties depend on the ingredients and method of preparation.

Vikirna Water

विकीर्णजलम्

Vikirna Jala refers to rainwater that has scattered on various surfaces before collection. Unlike directly collected rainwater (Divya Jala), this water has contacted soil, leaves, or other surfaces and acquires properties from those materials. Its quality varies based on what it contacts. Water collected from clean stone surfaces is better than that from soil or vegetation. The text recommends purification of such water before use.

Vishakchara

विषखर

Vishakchara is a plant whose tender shoots and leaves are used as a vegetable. It is bitter, pungent, hot and dry. It kindles digestive fire and destroys worms. Verses: 47.

Vrishti Jala

वृष्टिजलम्

Vrishti Jala (direct rainfall) is distinguished from stored rainwater. Fresh rainfall collected directly in clean vessels is considered among the best waters. It is light, pure, and free from mineral contamination. However, the first rains of the monsoon season may carry atmospheric pollutants and should be discarded. Rain collected mid-season is considered the purest. The text describes seasonal variations in rainfall quality extensively.

Vulture and Predatory Birds

गृध्रमांस

Birds of prey (Prasaha category) including vulture, eagle, hawk and similar carnivorous birds. Their meat is generally heavy and hot. It pacifies Vata. This is described for classification purposes. Verses: 31.

Water Intake Guidelines

जलपानविधिः

The text provides detailed guidelines on when and how to drink water: (1) Water should be drunk before meals to reduce body weight, during meals to maintain weight, and after meals to increase weight; (2) Cold water is contraindicated in hiccups, fever (newly manifested), cough, asthma, and immediately after oleation therapy (Snehapana); (3) Hot water is recommended in Kapha disorders, obesity, Ama conditions, and during Vamana/Virechana therapy; (4) One should not drink water immediately after exertion, after eating oily foods, or in excess quantity; (5) Drinking excessive cold water suppresses Agni (digestive fire). The amount of water intake should be regulated based on the season, constitution, and disease condition.

Water Purification Methods

जलशोधनम्

The text describes several traditional methods of water purification: (1) Boiling (Agni Santapta) - heating water over fire removes impurities and makes it lighter; (2) Sunlight exposure - keeping water in sunlight purifies it; (3) Moonlight exposure - exposing water to moonlight, especially during Sharad Ritu; (4) Heating with red-hot iron, gold, or other metals; (5) Adding natural purifying agents such as Kataka (Strychnos potatorum) seeds, Gomedaka stone, lotus flowers, or pearl; (6) Filtration through clean cloth. The text also describes water purification by storing in copper, gold, or silver vessels. The Kataka seed method (Nirmalika) is specifically highlighted - the powdered seed of Kataka fruit is added to turbid water, which settles the impurities and clarifies the water. Verses 20-29.

Watermelon Rind

कलिन्दशाक

Watermelon rind used as a vegetable in some regions. It is cooling and diuretic. Verse: 37.

Wax Gourd

कूष्माण्डफल

Additional details on Kushmanda fruit and its preparations. The fruit juice is used medicinally. The Petha sweet made from this gourd is famous. Verses: 34-36.

Well Water

कूपजलम्

Well water (Kupa Jala) or subterranean water emerges from underground sources. Its properties depend on the soil type through which it percolates. Well water is generally heavier than river water or rainwater. Water from wells in sandy soil is lighter, while that from clay or rocky soil is heavier. The depth of the well and the minerals in the surrounding earth affect its taste and medicinal properties. Well water filtered through sand and gravel is considered superior.

Wheat

गोधूम

Godhuma (Wheat) is described as one of the best nourishing grains. It is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and cold. Wheat is the primary food grain in northern India and many other regions. It is highly nourishing, strength-giving, and aphrodisiac. It is indicated for increasing weight and strength in emaciated and weak individuals. Wheat is best consumed as chapati (unleavened bread), but also as Halwa, porridge, and various other preparations. Wheat sprouts (Ankura) are considered even more nutritious. The grain should be 2-3 months old for best results; very new wheat is heavier. Different varieties exist but medicinal properties are similar. Wheat is Jivaniya (life-sustaining) and is one of the best Brimhana (nourishing) substances. It promotes tissue building, especially Mamsa (muscle), Meda (fat), and Shukra (reproductive tissue) Dhatus. Chemical analysis: protein 8-14%, starch, and B-vitamins. Dose: As food — ad libitum. Verses: 30-33.

Wheat Bread with Ghee

पोलिका

Polika is a type of bread (Roti) prepared with refined wheat flour and cooked with ghee. It is heavier and more unctuous than plain Roti. It is highly nourishing, strengthening, and aphrodisiac. However, being heavy, it requires strong digestive fire for proper digestion.

Wheat Preparation with Ghee and Sugar

सेविका

Sevika (vermicelli-like wheat preparation, similar to Semai/Sevaiyan) is sweet, heavy, unctuous, cold in potency, nourishing, aphrodisiac, and strengthening. It is a preparation made from wheat flour in thread-like form, often cooked with milk and sugar. It is nourishing but heavy to digest. Verse reference: 19-20.

Wheat — Barley Preparation

गोधूमयव

Further properties of wheat preparations — wheat combined with barley, wheat-based dishes, and comparative properties. The text discusses how wheat compares with barley — wheat is heavier and more nourishing while barley is lighter and more reducing. Both are Shukadhanya (awned grains). Verses: 33-34.

Wild Animals Living on Grass

तृणचर

General description of grass-eating wild herbivorous animals (deer, antelope, nilgai etc.). Their meat is generally light, dry, cooling and balances all three doshas. They are the best category of animals for meat from a therapeutic perspective. Being Jangala animals that eat grass and herbs, their meat is imbued with the medicinal properties of the plants they consume. Verses: 9-10.

Yam

सूरण

Surana (Elephant Foot Yam/Suran/Jimikand) is a tuberous root vegetable with a large underground corm. The plant has a single large compound leaf that resembles a small tree. The corm can weigh 5-10 kg. It is the premier vegetable recommended for hemorrhoids (Arsha Roga). It is pungent, light, dry and hot. It kindles digestive fire, kills worms and pacifies Vata. The spadix (Spadix) has characteristic foul smell. The corm must be properly cooked to neutralize the Calcium oxalate which causes intense itching. It is processed with tamarind or buttermilk before cooking. Contains Saponin. Dose: As needed. Verses: 57.

Yantrika-Kshira-Ikshu Properties

यान्त्रिककषायरसगुणाः

Yantrika Ikshu Rasa refers to juice extracted by pressing in a machine or press (Yantra). This method yields more juice compared to manual extraction. The properties of machine-extracted juice are similar to manually extracted juice but may contain more fibrous material. The juice obtained should be consumed fresh. When sugarcane juice starts fermenting, it becomes sour and increases Pitta. Verse 14.

Yavarotika

यवरोटिका

Yavarotika (barley bread) is made from barley flour. It is lighter and drier than wheat bread. It has scraping properties and helps in reducing fat. It is beneficial for those with Kapha-dominant constitution and for those who wish to reduce weight.