Ayurvedic Herbs & Botanicals
675 medicinal herbs from the Ayurvedic materia medica — each with its classical Sanskrit name, botanical classification, Ayurvedic properties (Rasa, Guna, Virya, Vipaka), therapeutic uses, and references from primary source texts.
Acacia
शातला
Acacia concinna DC.
Shatala (Acacia concinna) is mentioned in the text as Shikakai, widely used for hair care. The pods contain natural saponins that serve as a gentle hair cleanser. It is also used as a mild purgative and blood purifier. The pod decoction is used for skin diseases.
Acacia Babool Flower
बबूल
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del.
Babool (Acacia nilotica) flowers are small, yellow, globular heads with a mild fragrance. The tree is thorny and widely found in arid regions. The bark, gum, and pods are extensively used in dentistry - the bark powder or twig is used as a natural toothbrush. The gum (Gum Arabic) is an important commercial product. The flowers and bark are astringent, useful in diarrhea and dental problems. Dose: 5-10 ratti bark powder for teeth.
Aconite Poison
वत्सनाभ
Aconitum ferox Wall. (Aconitum chasmanthum)
Vatsanabha (Indian Aconite) is described as the foremost Visha (poison) used therapeutically. The root tuber of Aconitum ferox/chasmanthum is extremely toxic — containing aconitine and related alkaloids. After proper Shodhana (purification through Gomutra/cow's urine processing or Swedana/steaming), it becomes a powerful medicine. Purified Vatsanabha is used in malaria-type intermittent fevers, Sannipata Jwara (complex fevers), Vata disorders, colic pain, and indigestion. The text describes that India has about 24 species of Aconitum. A. ferox, A. deinorrhizum, A. balfourii, A. laciniatum, and A. spicatum are found in various Himalayan regions. The lethal dose is very small — death can occur from even small amounts of unpurified root. Purification reduces toxicity by converting alkaloids to less toxic forms. Dose: 1/8 to 1/4 Ratti. The detailed purification involves soaking in cow's urine for 7 days and then steaming. Verses: 156-165.
Adraka
आर्द्रक
Zingiber officinale Roscoe (fresh)
Fresh ginger differs from dry ginger in properties. Fresh ginger is Guru (heavy) with Katu Vipaka, while dry ginger is Laghu (light) with Madhura Vipaka. Fresh ginger is better as a food additive, while dry ginger is better as medicine.
Agarwood
अगरु
Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.
Agaru (Aquilaria agallocha, Fam. Thymelaeaceae) is Agarwood or Eagle-wood, one of the most prized aromatic woods. Found in Northeast India (Assam), Myanmar, and Southeast Asia. The fragrant resinous wood forms when the tree is infected by a specific fungus (Fungi Imperfecti — hence the name 'Krimija' meaning 'born of worms'). Healthy trees produce no fragrant wood. The infected resinous heartwood sinks in water, while uninfected wood floats. This is a key identification test. Agaru is hot in potency, aromatic, and used in heart diseases, cough, asthma, and Vata disorders. The oil is used in perfumery and incense. It is burned as dhoop (incense) in temples. Multiple grades exist — Krishna (black) Agaru is the best. Various types are described based on region of origin. The wood and oil command extremely high prices due to rarity. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 22-23.
Agastya Flowers
अगस्तिपुष्प
Sesbania grandiflora Linn.
The flowers of Agastya (Sesbania grandiflora) are large, white or red, and edible. They are used as a vegetable, especially in South Indian cuisine. The flower juice is used for nasal polyps and sinusitis as nasal drops. The flowers have anti-inflammatory properties. They are cooling and useful in Pitta disorders.
Arani
अग्निमन्थ
Premna integrifolia Linn.
Agnimantha (Premna integrifolia), also known as Arani, is one of the Dashamula (Laghu Panchamula -- five small root drugs) group plants. The name 'Agnimantha' literally means 'fire churner', indicating its strong digestive fire-kindling properties. It is a large shrub or small tree found across India. The root bark is the main medicinal part. It is highly valued for its Deepana (appetizer) and Pachana (digestive) properties. Two species are described: Premna integrifolia (larger variety) and Premna latifolia Roxb. The plant is an important constituent of Dashamula formulations.
Ailanthus
महारुख
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.
Maharuksha (Ailanthus excelsa) is described as a large tree reaching 60 feet in height with compound leaves of 8-12 paired leaflets. It is found throughout India in hilly regions and plains. The bark is the primary medicinal part. The text describes it as a variety often confused with Mahaneem due to similar appearance. It has cooling and antipyretic properties and is used in fevers and parasitic conditions.
Celery
अजमोदा
Apium graveolens Linn.
Used in digestive and Vata disorders. Found in Himalayan regions.
Wild Thyme
अजवायन जंगली
Thymus serpyllum Linn.
Found in Himalayan regions at medium altitudes. Contains Thymol. Used in cough, cold, and digestive disorders.
Mandar
रक्तार्क
Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R.Br. ex Ait.
Alarka (Calotropis gigantea) is the purple/red-flowered variety of Madar. It grows up to 4-10 feet height with thick fleshy leaves. This species is considered equivalent in properties to Calotropis procera but is more commonly found in the Himalayan foothills and southern India. It is distinguished by its purple-red flowers compared to the white flowers of C. procera.
Alexandrian Laurel
खाल नागकेसर
Ochrocarpus longifolius Benth. & Hook. f.; Calophyllum inophyllum Linn.
Khala Nagakesara is described as a variety of Nagakesara obtained from Ochrocarpus longifolius or Calophyllum inophyllum. It is used as a substitute for true Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea). The flowers and oil are used for wound healing and skin diseases. The oil (Calophyllum oil) has significant wound-healing and anti-inflammatory properties.
Almond
वाटाम
Prunus amygdalus Batsch.
Vatama (Almond/Badam) is the most valued nut in Ayurveda for brain development and strength. The tree grows in Kashmir, parts of the Himalayas and is also imported. The kernel is sweet, oily, nutritive and is one of the best Medhya (brain tonic) foods. Almonds are soaked overnight, peeled and eaten in the morning for brain power. Almond oil (Badam Rogan) is used in massage, skin care and as a nutritive. The oil is also used as nasal drops (Nasya). Almonds are rich in Vitamin E and protein. They are an important ingredient in Ayurvedic Lehyas and Pakas for strengthening and rejuvenation. Chemical analysis shows 45-55% oil and 20% protein. Dose: 5-7 almonds soaked; oil for massage. Verses: 46.
Aloe Vera
कुमारी
Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Syn. A. vera Tourn. ex Linn.)
Kumari / Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis) is one of the most widely used medicinal plants. The text provides extensive coverage of this herb. The fleshy leaves contain a gel (Kumari svarasa) and a yellow latex (dried to form Aloe/Musabbar). It is described as bitter, sweet, heavy, unctuous, slimy, and cold in potency. It is a versatile herb acting as a purgative, nourishing agent, aphrodisiac, eye tonic, and rejuvenative. The text mentions four varieties: (1) Curacao/Barbados aloes from A. vera var. officinalis, (2) Socotrine aloes, (3) Zanzibar aloes, and (4) Cape aloes from A. ferox. The dried extract (Musabbar) contains 20%+ Aloin. Various skin conditions, liver disorders, eye diseases, constipation, fever, and blood disorders are treated with it. The gel is cooling and soothing externally. Dose: fresh juice 10-20 ml; dried Aloe powder 1-2 ratti. Verse refs: pages 419-421.
Alphabetical Cross-Reference Entries — Cha to Jha
वर्णक्रमसूची-चकारादि
Selected entries from Cha through Jha group: - Chandana (चन्दन) — Sandalwood, but also used for any fragrant paste. - Chapalaa (चपला) — Lightning, Lakshmi (goddess of wealth), and a type of plant. - Jati (जाति) — Jasminum grandiflorum (jasmine), caste/species, and nutmeg (Jatiphala). - Jambira (जम्बीर) — Citrus medica (citron) and a type of drum. - Jivanti (जीवन्ती) — Leptadenia reticulata (a medicinal plant) and 'life-giving'.
Alphabetical Cross-Reference Entries — Ka to Gha
वर्णक्रमसूची-ककारादि
The glossary continues with entries organized in a more systematic (quasi-alphabetical) manner. Selected entries starting from Ka: - Kachcha (कच्छ) — Marshy land and a type of plant. - Kadamba (कदम्ब) — Anthocephalus cadamba tree, a cluster/group, and a type of cloud. - Kanda (कन्द) — Bulb/tuber, the root section of a plant, and Surana (elephant yam). - Kapitha (कपित्थ) — Wood apple (Feronia limonia) and monkey. - Karpura (कर्पूर) — Camphor and a type of banana. - Karnika (कर्णिक) — Pericarp of lotus, earring, and a type of arrow. - Kashtha (काष्ठ) — Wood/log, a direction, and a measurement of time. - Kumbhi (कुम्भी) — Pot/vessel, a type of tree (Careya arborea), and an elephant. - Kesara (केसर) — Saffron, hair/mane, and pollen/filament of flowers.
Alphabetical Cross-Reference Entries — Pa to Ma
वर्णक्रमसूची-पकारादि
Selected entries from Pa through Ma: - Palasha (पलाश) — Butea monosperma tree, leaf, and a type of forest. - Patra (पत्र) — Leaf, Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpatta), and a document/letter. - Bala (बल) — Sida cordifolia plant, strength/power, and a young child. - Bhanga (भंग) — Cannabis sativa, breaking/fracture, and a wave. - Maricha (मरिच) — Black pepper (Piper nigrum), sun ray, and a type of gem. - Masha (माष) — Black gram (Vigna mungo), a weight measure, and a type of bean. - Mitra (मित्र) — Friend, Sun, and a type of alliance. - Musta (मुस्त) — Cyperus rotundus, a fist, and joy/delight.
Alphabetical Cross-Reference Entries — Ta to Na
वर्णक्रमसूची-टकारादि
Selected entries from Ta through Na: - Tala (ताल) — Palm tree (Borassus flabellifer), rhythm/music, and a lock/bolt. - Tamra (ताम्र) — Copper and a red-colored substance. - Danti (दन्ती) — Baliospermum montanum (a purgative plant) and elephant. - Dhanya (धान्य) — Grain/cereal and Coriandrum sativum (coriander). - Nakha (नख) — Nail (human/animal), a type of perfume ingredient, and a musical instrument. - Naga (नाग) — Serpent, Mesua ferrea (nagakesara tree), elephant, lead (metal), and a mountain.
Alphabetical Cross-Reference Entries — Ya to Ha
वर्णक्रमसूची-यकारादि
Selected entries from Ya through Ha (final section): - Yava (यव) — Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a unit of measurement, and the pupil of the eye. - Rasa (रस) — Juice/sap, taste (6 rasas), mercury (Parada), essence, and emotion. - Lavanga (लवंग) — Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and a type of vine. - Vata (वात) — Wind/air element (dosha), Ficus benghalensis (banyan tree), and atmosphere/environment. - Shankha (शंख) — Conch shell, temple region of skull, and a large number (10^13). - Sara (सार) — Essence/pith, iron/steel, Aqilaria agallocha wood, and a lake. - Hema (हेम) — Gold, Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea), and a mountain (Himavat/Himalaya). - Hingu (हिंगु) — Asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida) and a fort/fortification. This concludes the Anekarthanama Varga — the final chapter of the Bhavaprakash Nighantu's Nighantu Bhaga (Materia Medica section).
Alternanthera
मत्स्याक्षी
Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R. Br.
Matsyakshi (Alternanthera sessilis) is a small spreading herb found across India near wet areas. It is used as a pot herb and vegetable. The leaves are used medicinally for hair growth and eye health. It has cooling properties and is nutritious. The herb is commonly found in moist habitats and is used in traditional cooking. Dose: As vegetable.
Alum
स्फटिक
Potash Alum
Sphatika (Alum) is a translucent crystalline mineral. It is widely used both externally and internally. External uses include as a hemostatic (to stop bleeding), in eye wash, in skin diseases, and as an antiseptic gargle. Internally, purified alum is used in cough, diarrhea, and leucorrhea. Bhasma of Sphatika is used in respiratory disorders. It is a common household remedy. Verses: 117-118.
Amada
आम्रातक
Spondias mangifera Willd.
Additional properties of Amrataka covering its various preparations and culinary uses. The fruit is used in pickles, preserves and as flavoring. Verses continued.
Amla
आमलकी
Phyllanthus emblica Linn.
Amalaki is considered the most important single drug in Ayurveda for maintaining health. It is the third ingredient of Triphala and a key component of Chyawanprash. Regular use promotes longevity. It is Sarva Dosha Hara but especially Pitta Shamaka due to its Sheeta Virya.
Amarbel variety
अमरबेल
Cassytha filiformis Linn.
Cassytha filiformis is described as another parasitic vine similar to Amarbel (Cuscuta reflexa). It is a Parasitic climber found on coastal trees. The text notes it is used similarly for hair and anthelmintic purposes. Verse ref: page 448.
Amarvela
अमरवल्ली
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Amarvela (Cuscuta reflexa) is a parasitic, leafless, orange-yellow twining vine. It grows on other plants and trees, obtaining nutrition parasitically. The plant is found throughout India up to 2000 feet elevation. It has thread-like stems that are orange-yellow in color. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is described as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is used for hair health (Keshya), worm infestations, blood purification, and bilious disorders. Contains Cuscutin and Amarbelin as key chemical constituents, along with reducing sugars. The plant is also known as Akashbel (sky-vine) due to its hanging, rootless nature. Dose: juice 10-20 ml; powder 3-6 grams. Verse refs: pages 447-448.
Amra Vetasa
आम्रवेतस
Rheum emodi Wall.
Amra Vetasa is described among the sour fruits. It is identified with Indian Rhubarb or related Polygonaceae species. The root is used as a purgative and in digestive disorders. It is sour and astringent. Used in small doses as a stomachic and in larger doses as a purgative. Dose: Root powder 1/2 to 1 masha. Verse: 55.
Anar
दाडिम
Punica granatum Linn.
Detailed description of Pomegranate including its three varieties - sweet, sour and sour-sweet. The bark of the fruit (Dadimavalkala) is one of the best drugs for diarrhea. The root bark is specifically used for tapeworm. The flower buds are useful in bleeding disorders. Pomegranate is one of the rare Tridoshahara fruits. Additional details on medicinal preparations and doses. Verses continued.
Apamarga
अपामार्ग
Achyranthes aspera Linn.
Apamarga (Achyranthes aspera) is a very common weed found throughout India. It is easily identified by its prickly chaff-like flowers that stick to clothes. The whole plant, especially the root and seeds (Kshara), is used medicinally. It is described as pungent, bitter, light, dry, sharp, and hot in potency. The text emphasizes its use in hemorrhoids (Arsha), digestive disorders, worm infestations, urinary disorders, and blood impurities. The seeds (Apamarga Kshara) are especially used for urinary calculi. It is also useful in treating snake bites and scorpion stings. The plant has two varieties - white (Shweta) and red (Rakta). Used externally for toothache and dental problems. Dose: powder 1-2 masha; decoction 1-2 tola. Verse refs: pages 414-416.
Aparajita
अपराजिता
Clitoria ternatea Linn.
Aparajita (Clitoria ternatea), the Butterfly Pea, is a well-known climbing plant with distinctive blue or white flowers. The text describes both white-flowered (Shveta Aparajita) and blue-flowered varieties. The root is the most important medicinal part, known as a Medhya (brain tonic) herb. It is classified among the four Medhya Rasayanas by Acharya Charaka. The root powder is used to improve memory and intellect. It is also used for skin diseases, fevers, and as an antidote to various poisons. The seeds have purgative and anti-parasitic properties. The text notes that some scholars have confused this plant with Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis), but they are different entities. Evolvulus alsinoides is also mentioned as 'Vishnukranta' by some authorities.
Apple
सेव
Pyrus malus Linn.
Sev (Apple) is a temperate fruit cultivated extensively in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The fruit is sweet-astringent, nutritive and excellent for the heart. It is heavy to digest but nourishing. Apple is one of the most popular fruits globally. The fruit is eaten fresh, as juice and in preserves. It is beneficial in heart disease and general debility. Apple contains pectin which is beneficial for digestion. Dose: As food. Verse: 47.
Aragvadha / Amaltas / Purging Cassia
आरग्वध
Cassia fistula Linn.
Safest and mildest purgative in Ayurveda. Black pulp inside fruit pods used. Suitable for children and elderly. Tree produces beautiful golden-yellow flowers. Pod is 30-60 cm long.
Arjuna Tree
अर्जुन
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A.
Arjuna is one of the most important cardiac drugs in Ayurveda. It is a large evergreen tree found along river banks throughout India. The bark is thick, smooth, white-grey and peels off in flat pieces. The bark is the principal medicinal part. It is the drug of choice in Hridroga (heart diseases) and is used extensively in cardiac debility, heart failure, and angina. The bark is given with milk or as decoction with honey. Arjuna bark strengthens the heart muscle and improves cardiac output. It is also useful in fractures - the bark decoction promotes bone healing. The bark ash is applied to wounds. The chemical composition includes Arjunin (a glycoside), Arjunic acid, about 16% tannin, and significant quantities of Calcium. Vagbhata recommends it specifically for heart conditions. Dose: Bark powder 3-6 masha; decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: Described under Vatadi Varga.
Ark Plant
अर्कपुष्पी
Holostemma rheedianum Spreng.
Arkpushpi (Holostemma rheedianum) is a large climbing plant found in peninsular India. The root tubers are the medicinal part. It is used as a rejuvenative and is considered an excellent tonic for vision. The sweetish tuber is eaten raw and used as medicine. Found in the Western Ghats and southern regions of India.
Tacca
वाराही
Tacca aspera Roxb.
Tacca aspera is mentioned as a variety growing in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Its tuber is used medicinally. It is similar to Dioscorea varieties in appearance. Dose: 2-4 masha.
Arsenic/Somala
सोमल
Arsenic trioxide (As2O3)
Somal (White Arsenic) is a highly toxic mineral poison. After extensive purification (Shodhana), it is used in very minute doses in intermittent fevers (malaria type), chronic skin diseases, and as a component of some Rasa formulations. Unpurified arsenic is lethal. The text gives strict warnings about its toxicity and describes purification methods involving cow's urine, lime water, and other detoxifying agents. Verses: 150-155.
Narkul
नरकुल
Arundo donax Linn.
Narkul (Arundo donax) is the giant reed, different from common reed. It grows to 10-12 feet. The root contains the alkaloid Gramine and Donaxarine. Used as a diuretic and galactagogue. The reed is also used for making musical instruments and writing implements.
Asbestos
नवसार
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
Navasara (Sal Ammoniac/Ammonium Chloride) is a white crystalline salt. It is primarily used as a flux in metallurgical processes and as a Shodhana (purification) agent for metals. Medicinally used in respiratory disorders and indigestion. It is also used in various Rasa preparations for converting metals to Bhasma. Verses: 110-111.
Asclepias
काकनासा
Asclepias curassavica Linn.
Asclepias curassavica is described as having emetic properties - it is sometimes called Bastard Ipecacuanha. The milky latex contains Asclepiadin. The plant has opposite leaves and orange-red flower clusters. It is pungent, bitter, sharp, and hot in potency. Used as an emetic and for poison treatment. The latex is irritant and should be used cautiously. Verse ref: page 440.
Ashoka Tree Flowers
अशोक
Saraca indica Linn.
Ashoka (Saraca indica) is one of the most important trees in Ayurveda for female reproductive health. The bark is the primary medicinal part but the flowers are also used. The bright orange-red flowers bloom in dense clusters. The tree is evergreen with compound leaves. The bark decoction is the main ingredient in Ashokarishta, a famous uterine tonic. The flowers contain tannins (about 10% Catechol). The fresh bark is preferred over dried. The tree is sacred in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Polyalthia longifolia (Ashoka look-alike) is sometimes confused with this tree but is different. The bark is used in menorrhagia, dysmenorrhea, and other uterine disorders. The tree grows 20-30 feet tall. Verse: 25 (primary); also see text in Pushpa Varga.
Ashtavarga — Eight Rare Herbs
अष्टवर्ग
Multiple species
Eight extremely rare herbs, most now unavailable or extinct in original form. Various substitutes (Pratinidhi) used in modern practice. Controversy exists about correct identification.
Ashwagandha
अश्वगन्धा
Withania somnifera Dunal
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is one of the most important Rasayana (rejuvenative) drugs in Ayurveda, often compared to Ginseng in its adaptogenic properties. The name 'Ashwagandha' means 'smelling like a horse' due to the characteristic horse-like odor of the fresh root. It is a small shrub growing 2-5 feet tall with greenish-yellow flowers and small red berries. The root is the primary medicinal part. It grows in drier parts of India - Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. The root contains Withanolides (steroidal lactones) as the main active principles, along with alkaloids including Somniferine and Withasomnine. Multiple species exist but Bhavaprakasha notes that the Nagori Ashwagandha (from Nagaur in Rajasthan) is considered the best variety. The roots when dried are 1-1.5 feet long, cylindrical, and grayish-brown. Ashwagandha is used in general debility, nervous exhaustion, insomnia, reproductive weakness, and as an anti-aging tonic. It is unique among Rasayana drugs in being Ushna Virya (hot potency) yet Madhura Vipaka. This makes it suitable for Vata and Kapha conditions while not significantly aggravating Pitta. The text emphasizes its role as Balya (strength-promoting), Vrishya (aphrodisiac), and Nidrajanana (sleep-inducing). It is also used in Shotha (inflammation), Kshaya (consumption), and Shvitra (leucoderma). Oil prepared from Ashwagandha root is applied externally in Vata disorders. Dose: root powder 2-4 masha; with milk or ghee; decoction 1-2 tola.
Ativisha / Atees / Indian Atees
अतिविषा
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.
Found in Himalayas at high altitudes. The tuberous root is used. Important Bala Roga (pediatric) drug — given to children for digestive disorders and fever. One of the safest Aconitum species due to non-toxic alkaloid Atisine. Named 'Ativisha' meaning 'antidote to poison.'
Axle-wood Tree
धव
Anogeissus latifolia Wall.
Dhava (Axle-wood) is a large deciduous tree found throughout India in dry deciduous forests. The bark and gum are the main medicinal parts. The bark is highly astringent and used in diarrhea and dysentery. The gum (Ghatti gum or Indian gum) is used as a substitute for Gum Arabic. The bark decoction is used for wound washing. The timber is very hard and used for making axles. The bark yields about 10-12% tannin on analysis. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 31.
Babool
बब्बूल
Acacia arabica Willd.
Babbula (Babool) is a medium-sized thorny tree found throughout the drier parts of India. The bark, gum, leaves, pods and tender twigs are all used medicinally. The bark is highly astringent and is used in diarrhea, dysentery, and bleeding gums. The tender twigs are widely used as tooth sticks (Datuna) for dental hygiene. The gum (Gum Arabic) is demulcent and nutritive, used in weakness and debility. The pods are astringent and used in diarrhea. The bark decoction is used as a gargle and vaginal douche. The bark extract is useful in leucorrhoea. Babool is one of the most commonly used trees in rural India for dental care. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; Gum 1-2 masha. Verses: 15-16.
Bada Gokhru
बड़ा गोक्षुर
Pedalium murex Linn.
Bada Gokhru (Pedalium murex) is the larger variety of Gokshura. It is a robust herb found in sandy regions of India. Its properties and actions are similar to Chhota Gokhru (Tribulus terrestris) but it is considered more potent as a diuretic and aphrodisiac. The mucilaginous extract of its fruit is especially used for urinary disorders and as a demulcent.
Badam
बादाम
Terminalia catappa Linn.
Badam (Indian Almond/Terminalia catappa) is a large spreading coastal tree. The kernel of the fruit is edible and tastes similar to true almonds. The bark is astringent. This should not be confused with the true almond (Prunus amygdalus). The leaves turn red before falling and are decorative. The kernel is nutritive but smaller and harder to extract than true almond. Dose: Kernel as food. Verse mentioned.
Bael
बिल्व
Aegle marmelos Corr.
Bilva (Aegle marmelos), commonly called Bael, is one of the most important trees in Ayurveda and is sacred to Lord Shiva. It is one of the Dashamula (ten roots) group herbs. The unripe fruit is the most valued part medicinally, being one of the best drugs for Grahani (chronic diarrhea/IBS) and Atisara (acute diarrhea). The plant grows in forests and is also widely cultivated near temples. The fruit is round and hard with a woody shell. The text specifically warns that ripe (Pakva) Bilva fruit is heavy to digest and Tridoshakara (aggravates all three doshas), while unripe fruit is Grahi (absorbent) and the treatment of choice for diarrheal diseases. The leaves, root bark, and fruit are all used. The fruit pulp mixed with jaggery makes an excellent remedy for chronic diarrhea.
Bahvarthaka Nama — Terms with Many Meanings
बह्वर्थकनामानि
The section on Bahvarthaka (many-meaning) terms lists the most polysemous words in Ayurvedic literature. These include: 1. Vari (वारि) — Water, but also refers to: (1) Bala plant, (2) Rain, (3) a type of gem, (4) Coconut water, (5) Camphor liquid, (6) Semen, and more. 2. Pushpa (पुष्प) — Flower, but also refers to: (1) Menstruation, (2) Disease symptoms, (3) a type of arrow, (4) Metallic calx (bhasma), and more. 3. Dhatu (धातु) — (1) Body tissue (7 Dhatus), (2) Mineral/metal, (3) Root/verbal root in grammar, (4) Essence, (5) Semen, (6) Element, and more. 4. Arka (अर्क) — (1) Calotropis (Madar plant), (2) Sun, (3) Crystal/lens, (4) a type of distillate, (5) Hymn, and more. These terms require the greatest contextual awareness for accurate interpretation.
Bakuchi
राजादन
Mimusops hexandra Roxb.
Rajadana is a large evergreen tree found in the forests of Western and Southern India. The ripe fruit is sweet and is eaten fresh. The flowers are fragrant. The tree yields good timber. The bark is astringent. The fruit is nutritive and aphrodisiac. Dose: As food. Verse: 29.
Bavchi
बाकुची
Psoralea corylifolia Linn.
Most important drug for Shvitra (vitiligo/leucoderma). Seeds are the part used. Psoralen from seeds causes photosensitization which is the basis of PUVA therapy in modern dermatology. Applied locally and taken internally for vitiligo.
Bakula Tree
बकुल
Mimusops elengi Linn.
Bakula (Maulsiri) is a large handsome evergreen tree with fragrant flowers. It is found throughout India, particularly in Western and Southern regions. The bark and flowers are the main medicinal parts. The bark is astringent and is used in gingivitis, loose teeth, and bleeding gums. The bark decoction is an excellent mouthwash for dental problems. The flowers are fragrant, dried and used in sachets. The fruit is edible when ripe. The bark contains about 70% tannin and saponins. The dried flowers are used medicinally for dental disorders. It is one of the most important drugs for Dantaroga (dental diseases) in Ayurveda. Dose: Bark decoction for gargling; powder 2-4 masha. Verses mentioned.
Vamsha
वंश
Bambusa arundinacea Willd.
Vamsha (Bambusa arundinacea) is the common bamboo extensively described in Ayurveda. Multiple parts are used: leaves, young shoots, and most importantly Vamshalochana (Tabasheer) - the siliceous concretion found inside bamboo internodes. Bamboo grows to 40-80 feet tall and is found across India. The young shoots are 10-12 feet tall. The leaves are lance-shaped with rough edges. The internodes are hollow. Vamshalochana (Tabasheer) is the most prized product - a white/bluish translucent substance found inside the nodes. It contains high amounts of Silica and is extremely valued as a Pittahara, Kaphahara, and general tonic. Bamboo seeds (Vamsha Beeja) are rare and appear once in approximately 30-60 years. Vamsha Patra (leaves) are used in Jvara and Kapha disorders. The young shoots are edible and nutritious. Dose: Vamshalochana 1-2 ratti; leaf juice 1-2 tola.
Bametha
बमेथा
Melilotus parviflora Desf.; Syn: Trifolium indicum Linn.
Used in Vata-Pitta disorders. Found in Western and Central India.
Banana varieties
कदलीभेद
Musa species
Description of different banana varieties (Bheda) and their specific properties. Different varieties include Yellaki (Elaichi banana - small and sweet), Poovan, Nendran (cooking banana), and others. Each variety has slightly different therapeutic properties but all are generally sweet, nourishing and heavy. The flower (Mocha) is used as a vegetable and in diabetes. The stem juice is diuretic and lithotriptic. Verses continued.
Banyan Tree
वट
Ficus benghalensis Linn.
The Banyan tree (Vata/Nyagrodha) is one of the most important trees in Indian culture and medicine. It is a massive tree with aerial prop roots that grow downward from branches to form secondary trunks. The tree can spread over a very large area. The milky latex, bark, leaves, tender buds and aerial roots are all used medicinally. The bark and latex are astringent and are used in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), Yoniroga (uterine disorders), Prameha (diabetes), and Vrana (wounds). The latex is applied externally on cracked heels and joints. The tender leaf buds are used in diarrhea and dysentery. The aerial root is useful in dental problems. The bark contains Kino tannic acid. The chemical composition of the latex includes tannins, wax, and resin. The tree is considered sacred and is associated with longevity. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; latex externally. Verses: 1-4.
Barleria
सहचर
Barleria prionitis Linn.
Katsareya (Barleria prionitis) is a thorny shrub with yellow or orange flowers. It grows 2 to 4 feet tall. The leaves and roots are used medicinally. It is commonly found along roadsides and in hedges. The root is used in dental complaints - chewed as a toothbrush. The plant is spiny with opposite leaves. Different varieties exist: B. cristata (purple/blue flowers), B. strigosa (blue), and others. The flower is used in cough and Kapha disorders. It has 0.2-0.3% essential oil. Dose: 4-8 tola Kvatha; Churna 2-4 tola. Verse: 26.
Barley Alkali Preparation
क्षार
Detailed description of various Kshara (alkali) preparations made from plant ashes. Includes Yavakshara (barley ash), Palasha Kshara, Apamarga Kshara. Used in urinary disorders, digestive disorders, and as surgical caustics (Kshara Karma).
Bdellium
बोल
Commiphora myrrha Holmes (Balsamodendron myrrha)
Bola (Myrrh/Bdellium) is an oleo-gum resin from Commiphora myrrha. It is used in wound healing, mouth disorders, skin diseases, and pain management. It has antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties. Used both internally and externally. Verses: 130.
Beeswax
मधुसिक्थ
Madhusiktha (Beeswax) is the wax produced by honeybees. It is used extensively in Ayurvedic pharmacy as a base for ointments, creams, and suppositories. It has wound-healing and skin-protective properties. It pacifies Vata and Pitta doshas. It is a key ingredient in many external formulations.
Bel Fruit
बेल
Aegle marmelos
Note: Bilva (Bel) properties are referenced at the end of the Vatadi Varga section (pages 494-498) and described in more detail there. The fruit is one of the most important Grahi (absorbent/anti-diarrheal) drugs. The unripe fruit is astringent and used in chronic diarrhea and dysentery. The ripe fruit is sweet, laxative and aromatic. Verses: 15.
Benzoin
लोध्रसार
Styrax benzoin Dryand.
Lodhrasara (Benzoin) is a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin. Two types are described in the text. It is primarily used as an aromatic fumigant and in respiratory conditions. The resin has expectorant and antiseptic properties. It is used in cough preparations and as a preservative in pharmaceutical formulations. The resin is available in different grades based on purity and origin.
Paan
पान
Piper betle Linn.
Paan (Betel Leaf) is described as a sacred and auspicious plant used extensively in Indian culture. The leaf is aromatic, pungent, and warming. It acts as an excellent mouth freshener, digestive stimulant, and Kapha-reducing agent. The text describes its use in chewing along with supari (betel nut), kattha, and chuna (lime) as a traditional practice that improves digestion, freshens breath, and strengthens gums. It has antiseptic properties. Its spike (Magadhi variety) is considered a separate type. Betel leaf is contraindicated in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) and Pitta-predominant conditions when used excessively.
Betel Nut
पूग
Areca catechu Linn.
Puga (Betel Nut/Supari) is the fruit of the Areca Palm, widely cultivated in Southern and Eastern India. The nut is chewed with Betel leaf (Paan) after meals as a digestive. It is astringent and anthelmintic. The ripe nut is harder and more astringent than the tender nut. Supari contains the alkaloid Arecoline which has anthelmintic properties. The dried nut is processed in various ways - boiled, cut, and flavored. It is an important social and cultural item in India. Fresh tender betel nut (Chikni Supari) is sweeter and less astringent. Excessive use can stain teeth red and cause oral submucous fibrosis with long-term use. The nut is used in veterinary medicine as a dewormer. Chemical composition includes 15% tannins and the alkaloid Arecoline. Dose: 1-2 masha; as mouth freshener after meals. Verses: 13.
Bezoar Stone
गोरोचन
Bezoar (calculus from animal stomach)
Gorochana (Bezoar Stone) is a calculus obtained from the stomach or gallbladder of animals. Various types are described based on origin. It is considered a potent antidote and is used in critical conditions of poisoning and high fever.
Bharangi
भारंगी
Clerodendrum serratum Spreng.
Important drug for respiratory disorders. The root is the part used. Found throughout India. Used in many anti-asthmatic formulations.
Bhringaraj
भृंगराज
Eclipta alba Hassk.
Bhringaraj (Eclipta alba) is the premier hair herb in Ayurveda. Its name literally means 'ruler of the hair' (Bhring = bee/hair, Raj = king). The plant reaches about 1000 foot elevation and grows in moist areas. The whole plant, especially the leaves, is used medicinally. It is described as pungent, bitter, light, dry, and hot in potency. The text emphasizes its primary action as Keshya (hair growth promoting) and Rasayana (rejuvenative). It turns grey hair black, prevents hair fall, and promotes new growth. It is also excellent for the liver (Yakrit) and spleen (Pleeha), and is one of the best liver tonics. The juice is applied to the scalp for hair benefits. The plant has white flowers and the juice turns black on exposure - hence the name. The text also discusses Wedelia calendulacea (Peela Bhangra / Yellow Eclipta) as a related species with similar but slightly different properties. Bhringaraj is used in Bhringaraj Taila (oil) which is the most popular Ayurvedic hair oil. Dose: juice 10-20 ml; powder 3-6 grams. Verse refs: pages 428-430.
Bhutare
भूतकेश
Angelica glauca Edgw.
The text discusses Bhutare/Yunare in the section on aromatic fumigation substances. Some scholars identify it with Angelica glauca while others consider it a distinct drug. It is used in dhupa (fumigation) preparations and for fever, digestive disorders, and as an anthelmintic.
Big Red Bead Tree
रक्तकम्बल
Adenanthera pavonina Linn.
Raktakambal (Adenanthera pavonina Linn., Fam. Leguminosae/Mimosaceae) — also known as Badi Gumchi. A large tree found in Western and Southern India. Its bright red seeds are used as weights by jewelers. The bark and seeds are used medicinally as an emetic and tonic. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga.
Big Vetiver
वीरण
Andropogon muricatus Retz.
Virana is a variety of vetiver grass closely related to Ushira. The text distinguishes it from regular Ushira (Vetiveria zizanioides). It has similar cooling and aromatic properties but is described as a distinct variety. The roots are used for cooling purposes and in the management of urinary disorders and burning sensations. It is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions of India.
Bijaka
विजयसार
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
Vijayasara (Bijaka) is a large deciduous tree found in the forests of Western and Southern India. The heartwood is used extensively in Prameha (diabetes). Water kept overnight in a vessel made of this wood (Vijayasara tumbler) is used to drink in the morning for diabetes management. The heartwood yields a red gum known as 'Kino' which is highly astringent and used in diarrhea, dysentery, and leucorrhoea. The bark is used as a gargle for oral diseases. The tree also yields a resinous exudate. The chemical composition includes Pterocarpin, Pterostilbene, and Kino-tannic acid. It is one of the most commonly prescribed drugs in Prameha chikitsa (diabetes treatment). Dose: Kwatha 1-2 tola; Kino 5-10 ratti. Verses: 14.
Birch
भूर्ज
Betula utilis D. Don
Bhurja (Birch) grows in the Himalayas at elevations of 7 to 12,000 feet above sea level. The bark peels off in thin papery layers and was historically used as writing material (Bhojpatra). The tree grows 50-70 feet tall. The bark contains Betulin, a triterpene, and tannins. The bark is astringent, anthelmintic and useful in skin diseases. The bark layers (Bhojpatra) are used for writing manuscripts. A related species B. alnoides Buch. is found at lower elevations up to 100 feet. The essential oil from the bark has antiseptic properties. Dose: Bark powder 4 to 10 tola; churna 1-2 masha. Verse: 26.
Bitter Cucumber
कर्चिर
Cucumis species
Kachvariya is a wild type of cucumber/gourd described for its bitter medicinal properties. It is used in digestive disorders and worm infestations. Verse mentioned.
Bitter Gourd
कारवेल्लक
Cucumis momordica Roxb.
Karavella (Bitter Gourd/Karela) is one of the most important medicinal vegetables. The plant is a tendril-bearing climber with deeply lobed leaves. The fruits are oblong, green, 1.5-5 inches, tapering at both ends, covered with wart-like projections. All parts are extremely bitter. It is a principal vegetable used in diabetes (Prameha). It purifies blood, kills intestinal worms, and is used in fever, skin diseases, and liver disorders. The juice is used for diabetes. It is an excellent Pitta-shamaka despite being hot in potency, due to its strong bitter taste. Regular consumption helps control blood sugar levels. It also contains Momordicin which gives its characteristic bitterness. Contains Charantin which has hypoglycemic action. Verses: 24-26. Dose: Swarasa (juice) 10-20 ml.
Black Bitumen/Mineral Tar
शिलाजतु
Asphaltum/Bitumen varieties
Further description of Shilajatu varieties and their processing. The text describes the four types in more detail — Gold (Suvarna), Silver (Rajata), Copper (Tamra), and Iron (Lauha) Shilajatu, based on the rock from which they exude. The Iron type (dark brown/black) is the most commonly available and therapeutically useful. Testing methods, purification processes, and dosage guidelines are provided. Verses: 101-110.
Black Salt
सौवर्चल लवण
Unaqua Sodium Chloride (with iron sulphide)
Black salt (Kala Namak) with characteristic sulphurous smell. Used extensively in Indian cuisine (chaat masala). Excellent digestive aid. Contains iron compounds giving it the black color and distinctive taste.
Black Turpeth
श्यामा त्रिवृत
Shyama Trivrit (Black Turpeth) is the darker variety of Trivrit considered more drastic in its purgative action. It is used when a stronger purgation is needed. The black variety should be used with caution as it can cause excessive purgation and griping. It is generally avoided in weak patients and those with Pitta constitution.
Blue Shankhapushpi
विष्णुक्रान्ता
Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.
Vishnukranta (Evolvulus alsinoides) is described as the blue-flowered variety of Shankhapushpi. It is found throughout India at altitudes up to 6000 feet. It is a small prostrate herb with blue flowers. Like white Shankhapushpi, it has Medhya (brain tonic) properties. The leaves are small, 4-25 mm long. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is used for mental weakness, memory loss, and speech disorders. Dose: 1-2 tola. Verse: 269-270.
Blue Water Lily
उत्पल
Nymphaea stellata Willd.
Utpala (Blue Water Lily) is the blue-flowered species of the water lily family. It is considered one of the most beautiful aquatic flowers. The flowers, rhizome and stems are used medicinally. It is cooling, improves complexion and is good for the heart. The blue flowers are used in eye disorders. It is referenced in many Ayurvedic formulations. Verse: 9-10.
Blumea
कुकुन्दर
Blumea lacera DC.
Kukurondha (Blumea lacera) is found throughout India at up to 2000 feet. It has a characteristic strong unpleasant smell (hence the name 'dog-sniffed'). The leaves are covered with soft hairs. The whole plant is used. It is employed in fevers, worm infestations, and as an insect repellent. The plant produces 3-4 small yellow flower heads. Dose: Swarasa. Verse: 204-206.
Borax
टंकण
Sodium Borate; Sodii Biboras
Tankana (Borax) is a naturally occurring mineral salt. It is widely used in Ayurveda as a Shodhana (purifying) agent for mercury and other metals. Medicinally, it is used in cough, bronchitis, and respiratory disorders as it is a powerful mucus-dissolving agent. It is also used as a flux in metallurgical processes. Purified Tankana is called Tankana Bhasma. Verses: 114-116.
Brahmayana
ब्रायमाणा
Not clearly identified
Brahmayana is described in the context of herbs used in brain tonics and rejuvenation formulas. The text provides various synonyms. Specific botanical identification remains disputed. It is included among herbs that promote intellect and longevity. Verse ref: page 431.
Brahmayana
श्वेतसारिवा
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.
This is a supplementary entry linking Shvetasariva back to the main Sariva (Hemidesmus indicus) description. The text reaffirms its blood-purifying, complexion-enhancing, and thirst-relieving properties. Verse ref: page 427.
Brass
रीति
Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)
Riti (Brass) is an alloy of copper and zinc, classified as an Upadhatu. Its Bhasma is used in eye diseases and worm infestations. It has properties similar to Tamra (copper) but milder. Brass should not be used for cooking acidic or sour foods as it can become toxic. Verses: 47.
Brihati
बृहती
Solanum indicum Linn.
Brihati (Solanum indicum), known as Badi Kateri in Hindi, is a member of the Laghu Panchamula. It is a prickly undershrub found commonly across India. The plant bears small round berries that turn yellow when ripe. The root, fruit, and whole plant are used medicinally. It is pungent and bitter with strong Kapha-reducing action, making it especially useful in respiratory conditions like cough, asthma, and hiccup. Together with Kantakari, it forms the pair known as 'Brihati-dvaya' or 'Kateri-dvaya'. The text notes its Solanum torvum Swartz as a related species.
Bronze/Bell Metal
कांस्य
Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)
Kansya (Bell metal/Bronze) is an alloy of copper and tin. It produces a resonant bell-like sound when struck. Kansya Bhasma is used in eye diseases, worm infestations, and as a Lekhana (reducing/scraping) agent in obesity. Food cooked in bronze vessels is considered beneficial for intellect. Verses: 48.
Butea
पलाश
Butea frondosa Koen. ex Roxb.
Palasha (Butea) is one of the most striking trees in India, known for its brilliant flame-colored flowers that appear in spring when the tree is leafless. It is a moderate-sized deciduous tree found throughout India up to 3000 feet elevation. The tree yields a gum known as 'Bengal Kino' which is astringent and used medicinally. The seeds are one of the most important anthelmintic drugs in Ayurveda - particularly effective against roundworms. The flowers yield an orange-red dye used in Holi festival. The bark decoction is used in piles and fistula. The leaves are traditionally used as plates (Pattal). The gum is used in diarrhea. The seed paste is applied externally in skin diseases. Chemical analysis shows the bark contains about 18% tannin. Dose: Seeds 3-6 masha; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 27.
Butea Flower Properties
किंशुक पुष्प
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze
The flowers of Palash are specifically described for their cooling, astringent properties. The bright orange-red flowers are used to make a decoction for skin diseases and as a natural dye. The flower extract is cooling and used in Pitta disorders and urticaria. Dose: Kvatha of flowers. Verse: 17-18.
Calamine — Rasanjan
खर्पर
Zinc Carbonate (ZnCO3)
Kharpar (Calamine) is a zinc-based mineral. Its Bhasma is used especially in eye diseases, skin disorders, and wounds. It has cooling properties and is indicated in Pitta-dominant conditions. Verses: 46.
Calcium/Chalk
शुद्धा
Calcium oxide / Calcium carbonate (CaO/CaCO3)
Sudha (Calcium/Lime) is obtained from limestone, shells, and coral. It is used in preparations for worm infestations and digestive disorders. Externally it is used as a caustic agent. It is a component of various Kshara (alkaline) preparations. Verses: 121.
Camphor
कर्पूर
Dryobalanops camphora Colebr. (Bhimseni); Cinnamomum camphora Nees & Eberm. (Chini)
Karpura (Camphor) is the first substance described in the Karpuradi Varga, the second chapter of Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Four types are described: (1) Bhimseni — the best, from Dryobalanops camphora trees in Borneo/Sumatra, naturally deposited in wood crevices; (2) Chini — from Cinnamomum camphora, obtained by distillation; (3) Pachi/Bapani — from Blumea species; (4) Synthetic — chemically prepared. Bhimseni is preferred for medicinal use. Camphor is cold in potency, aromatic, and used extensively in heart diseases, burning sensations, fevers, and eye conditions. It is a cardiac stimulant in small doses. Excessive use can reduce sexual potency. Applied externally for skin conditions and pain relief. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 1-3.
Camphor Basil
सरलनिर्यास
Boswellia serrata Roxb.
Shallaki (Indian Frankincense/Salai Guggul) is the gum-resin obtained from Boswellia serrata. It is one of the most important anti-inflammatory drugs in Ayurveda. The boswellic acids in the resin have been extensively studied for their anti-arthritic properties. It is primarily used for joint disorders, musculoskeletal pain, and inflammatory conditions. It is astringent and sweet with cooling potency.
Cane
बेंत
Calamus tenuis Roxb.
Vetra/Bent (Calamus tenuis) is the cane palm, distinct from the willow Vetasa though sharing a similar name. It is a climbing palm with long flexible stems used to make walking sticks and furniture. The young shoots are edible. The plant has compound pinnate leaves with spiny midrib. Its height reaches 2 to 4 inches in diameter. Medicinally the bark and young shoots have astringent and cooling properties. It is used in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) and as an antidote for certain poisons. The Flagellum (whip-like flexible portion) is used externally. Dose: bark powder 2-4 masha; shoot decoction 1-2 tola.
Cannabis
भंगा
Cannabis sativa Linn.
Cannabis (Bhanga/Vijaya) has been used in Ayurveda primarily as an analgesic, sedative, and anti-diarrheal. Three forms are used: Bhanga (leaves), Ganja (flowering tops), Charas (resin). In Ayurveda, purified preparations are used in small doses for specific conditions — pain, insomnia, diarrhea, appetite stimulation. Considered Madakara (intoxicant) and used with extreme caution.
Caper Bush
करीर
Capparis aphylla Roth.
Karira (Caper Bush) is a thorny, much-branched shrub found in arid regions, particularly in Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is almost leafless with cylindrical green branches that perform photosynthesis. The unripe fruits are pickled and eaten. The root bark is used in cough, asthma and rheumatic conditions. The plant is considered heating and is useful in Vata and Kapha disorders. The tender branches are used for tooth cleaning. The fruit is laxative. The plant grows extensively in the Thar desert. Dose: Root bark decoction 1-2 tola; fruit as food. Verse: 33.
Cassie Flower Tree
तुगाञ्च
Acacia farnesiana Willd.
Tuganga is a variety of Babool with fragrant flowers. It is a large shrub or small tree found throughout India. Its properties are similar to Babbula. The bark is astringent and used in similar conditions. The fragrant flowers yield an essential oil used in perfumery. Verse: 17.
Eranda
एरण्ड
Ricinus communis Linn.
Eranda (Ricinus communis), the Castor plant, is one of the most important Vatahara (Vata-alleviating) drugs in Ayurveda. It is a soft-wooded small tree or large shrub found throughout India. The plant has large palmate leaves and prickly fruit capsules containing seeds. Castor oil (Eranda Taila), extracted from the seeds, is the most widely used preparation. It is the drug of choice for Amavata (rheumatoid arthritis) and all Vata disorders. Castor oil is a famous purgative (Virechana) used both for therapeutic purification and as a regular remedy for constipation. The root decoction is used for inflammatory conditions and fever. Two varieties are described -- red (Rakta) and white (Shveta) Eranda, with the red variety considered more potent. The oil has remarkable lubricating properties and is used both internally and externally. The seeds contain the toxic protein Ricin, which is neutralized during oil processing. The text extensively describes its applications in managing pain, swelling, and joint disorders.
Castor Oil
एरण्ड तैल
Ricinus communis Linn.
The text provides extensive details on Castor Oil (Eranda Taila) processing, chemical composition, and therapeutic applications. The oil contains Ricinoleic acid as its primary constituent. It is described as one of the best Virechana (purgative) oils and the premier oil for Vata disorders. The oil is used for Basti (enema therapy), oral purgation, and external massage. It lubricates the joints and relieves pain. Processing involves cold-pressing of seeds followed by purification. Raw seeds contain toxic Ricin protein which does not pass into the oil. The oil has unique property of being soluble in alcohol, distinguishing it from other oils.
Gond Pater
गोंदपटेर
Typha angustata Bory & Chaub.
Gond Pater (Typha angustata) is the narrow-leaved cat's tail or bulrush found in marshy areas. It is briefly mentioned with limited medicinal description.
Centipeda
नकछिकनी
Centipeda orbicularis Lour.
Nakchikni (Centipeda orbicularis) is a small prostrate herb found in wet areas worldwide. It is known for causing sneezing when the juice is inhaled, hence used as a nasal errhine (Shirovirechana). The plant is very small with tiny flower heads. It is used in headache, sinusitis, and nasal congestion. The plant juice is applied as nasal drops. Dose: Swarasa 1-2 drops nasally. Verse: mentioned in context of nasal herbs.
Ceylon Oak
कोशल
Schleichera trijuga Willd.
Koshala (Ceylon Oak) is a large deciduous tree found in the forests of Central and Southern India. The tree is important as it is the host tree for lac insects. The seed oil (Kusum oil) is used in skin diseases and as hair oil. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases. The tree grows to 4-12 feet in diameter and can reach significant height. The leaves are used as fodder. The oil from seeds is edible and used medicinally. The bark decoction is used in itching, eczema and skin diseases. Dose: Oil externally; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses mentioned.
Chakvad
चक्रमर्द
Cassia tora Linn.
Common weed found throughout India. Leaves and seeds used. Especially effective against Dadru (ringworm/dermatophytosis). The leaf paste is applied locally on ringworm lesions.
Garden Cress
चन्द्रशूर
Lepidium sativum Linn.
Seeds (Halim) commonly given to lactating mothers to promote milk production. Also used as nutritive tonic.
Chaste Tree
निर्गुण्डी
Vitex agnus-castus Linn.
Nirgundi is described in the text in the context of Priyangu discussion. The text mentions that some varieties of Priyangu were confused with Sindhuvara/Nirgundi. Vitex agnus-castus has palmately compound leaves and is found throughout India. It is one of the most important anti-inflammatory drugs in Ayurveda. The leaves, roots, and seeds are used. It is heating in potency and used for joint pain, headache, inflammatory swellings, and worm infestations. The leaves are applied as poultice for swelling and pain.
Chaturarthini and Pancharthini Nama — Four and Five Meaning Glossary
चतुरर्थिनी-पञ्चार्थिनीनामसूची
Extended list of four-meaning and five-meaning terms: Four-meaning terms: - Somaraji (सोमराजी) — (1) Psoralea corylifolia/Bakuchi, (2) Moon, (3) King of Soma dynasty, (4) a type of creeper. - Patola (पटोल) — (1) Pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica), (2) Cloth/fabric, (3) a measurement, (4) a region. Five-meaning terms: - Soma (सोम) — (1) Soma plant (for Soma juice), (2) Moon, (3) Camphor, (4) Water, (5) a Vedic deity. - Agni (अग्नि) — (1) Fire, (2) Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica), (3) Digestive fire, (4) Gold, (5) Number three. These extensive meaning-lists demonstrate the rich polysemy of Sanskrit pharmaceutical terminology.
Chavya
चव्य
Piper chaba Hunter; Piper officinarum Cas. D.C.
A climbing shrub of tropical forests. Dried stem is used medicinally. Properties similar to Pippali but more pungent and drying. Part of Panchakola group.
Cherry
प्रियाल
Buchanania latifolia Roxb.
Priyala (Chironji) is a moderate-sized deciduous tree found in the dry forests of Central India. The seed kernel is the edible part, widely used as a dry fruit in Indian sweets and cooking. The kernel is sweet, nutritive, oily and aphrodisiac. The oil from kernels (Chironji oil) is used as a substitute for olive oil and almond oil. It is nourishing and strengthening. The fruit is eaten fresh and the kernel is expensive and valued. The bark is astringent. Chemical analysis shows the kernel contains 50-52% oil and significant protein. Dose: Kernel as food; oil externally. Verse: 28.
Chichda
निचुल्क
Casearia tomentosa Roxb.
Nichulka (Casearia tomentosa) is a tree whose bark and leaves are used medicinally. The bark is used in snake bite and scorpion sting as a vishaghna (anti-poison). It has bitter taste and hot potency. The leaves and bark are used externally on skin ailments and internally as an anthelmintic.
Child Life Tree
पुत्रन्जीवा
Putranjiva roxburghii Wall.
Putranjeeva is a medium to large-sized evergreen tree found in central and eastern India. The name literally means 'life of the child' indicating its use in securing progeny and preventing miscarriage. The seeds and leaves are used medicinally. The seeds are strung into necklaces and worn by children as protective charms. The oil from seeds is used as an emollient. The leaves and bark are used in fever. The tree is considered auspicious and is planted near temples and houses. Dose: Seed powder 3-6 ratti. Verse: 21.
China Rose
जपा
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.
Gudhal (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is one of the most commonly grown ornamental shrubs in India. The red flowers are used medicinally, especially for hair care. The flower paste is applied on hair to promote growth and prevent graying. The flowers are 5-C (4-5 inches) in size with prominent staminal column. Red, pink, white and yellow varieties exist. It is extensively used as a hair tonic - flower paste mixed with oil prevents hair fall and promotes growth. The flowers are also used in menstrual disorders and as a uterine tonic. The leaves are emollient. The plant is evergreen with glossy leaves. Calcium (4.04%), Phosphorus (26.68%), Iron (1.69 mg/100g), Thiamine (0.031 mg%), Riboflavin (0.058 mg%), Niacin (0.61 mg%), Ascorbic acid (4.16 mg%) are reported. Carotene (7.34 mg per 100g fresh material) is also present. Dose: Flowers fresh 5-6; Churna 3-6 grams. Verse: 15-16.
Chinese Cinnamon
तज
Cassia cinnamon; Cinnamomum cassia Blume
Taja is Chinese cinnamon or cassia bark obtained from Cinnamomum cassia. It is thicker and coarser than true cinnamon (Dalchini). The bark is used as a spice and has similar but stronger flavor than Ceylon cinnamon. In Ayurveda, it is used for digestive complaints and as a flavoring agent in formulations.
Chirata
किरातक्त
Swertia chirata Buch.-Ham.
Found in Himalayas at 1200-2400m. Whole plant used. Widely used as bitter tonic and febrifuge. Often adulterated. Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh) is the most common substitute.
Leadwort
चित्रक
Plumbago zeylanica Linn.
One of the best Deepana drugs in Ayurveda. The root is the part used. Named after fire-related synonyms due to its strong digestive fire-kindling property.
Chopchini
चोपचीनी
Smilax china Linn.
Introduced through Chinese/European trade. Popular for treating Phiranga Roga (syphilis). Dried tuberous root is used.
Cinnamon
दारुसिता
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
Dalchini (Ceylon Cinnamon) is the inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum. It is one of the finest spice barks, thin and delicate compared to cassia. The bark is aromatic with a pleasant sweet-spicy flavor. It is widely used in Ayurveda as a digestive, carminative, and flavoring agent. It has significant antimicrobial properties. The essential oil contains cinnamaldehyde as the principal component. It pacifies Vata and Kapha and is used in cough, cold, digestive disorders, and oral care. It also has aphrodisiac properties. Dalchini is used internally in typhoid and externally for skin conditions.
Cinnamon Bark & Tejpatra
तमालपत्र
Cinnamomum tamala Nees
Talisapatra section mentions Tamalpatra/Tejpatra as related aromatic leaves used in formulations. Cinnamomum tamala yields the Indian bay leaf (Tejpat) widely used in cooking and medicine. The leaves are aromatic, 3-5 nerved, and glossy. It grows in the sub-Himalayan region and northeastern India. The bark and leaves are both medicinally valuable. The drug has pungent, bitter, and sweet tastes with heating potency. It is commonly used as a spice and digestive. It alleviates Vata and Kapha. Also included in formulations for cough, cold, and respiratory ailments. The leaves contain essential oil with cinnamaldehyde. Abies webbiana (Silver Fir) and Taxus baccata (Yew) are noted as being distinct from Talisapatra in some traditions. Dose: 1-3 grams.
Cinnamon Bark
त्वक्पत्र
Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm.
Tvak Patra (Tejpat/Indian Bay Leaf) is the leaf of Cinnamomum tamala. The leaves are aromatic and used as a spice. Medicinally, the leaves are used for digestive complaints, oral hygiene, and as a cardiac tonic. The bark (Tvak) of the same tree and related species of Cinnamomum are important aromatic drugs in Ayurveda.
Citron
बीजपूर
Citrus medica Linn.
Bijapura (Citron/Bijora) is a large citrus fruit with thick rind. The tree is found in hilly regions of India. The fruit is large, oblong and fragrant. The rind is very thick and the juice is less than in lemons. The rind is candied and used in confections. The juice is sour and used medicinally as an appetizer and digestive. The essential oil from the rind is aromatic and used in perfumery. It is useful in Hridroga (heart disease), Aruchi (anorexia) and Gulma (abdominal tumors). The fruit is one of the sacred offerings in Hindu worship. Dose: Juice 1-2 tola. Verse: 51.
Civet Musk
जवादि कस्तूरी
Viverra zibetha Linn.
Javadi Kasturi (Civet) is an aromatic animal secretion from the civet cat (Viverra zibetha, Fam. Viverridae). It is used as a substitute for true Kasturi (deer musk). The civet gland secretion is collected from captive animals. It shares some properties with deer musk but is considered inferior. Used primarily as an aromatic and in perfumery. Has aphrodisiac and cardiac stimulant properties. Dosage: 2-4 Ratti. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 9.
Cleaning Nut Tree
नाशोत्तरा
Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC.
The text describes Hurhur (Gynandropsis pentaphylla) as a strong-smelling herb. Its leaves and seeds are used medicinally. It is pungent and hot in nature and is used in ear diseases and as a vermifuge. Verse: 265.
Clematis
मोरवेल
Clematis gouriana Roxb.
Clematis gouriana is a climbing plant found in forest areas. The leaves and stems are used medicinally. It has sharp, pungent properties and is used for reducing swellings and pain relief. Applied externally as a paste. Verse ref: page 437.
Cleome
श्वेतहुरहुर
Cleome viscosa Linn.
The white variety of Hurhur (Cleome) is mentioned as having similar properties to the yellow variety but milder in action.
Clerodendrum -- Turbud variety
भारंगी
Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.
Bharangi/Clerodendrum is mentioned in the text in relation to the Yunare (Bhutare) group of drugs. Some scholars consider it as a separate drug while the text discusses it in context of aromatic substances used for fumigation and respiratory disorders.
Cloves
लवङ्ग
Caryophyllus aromaticus Linn.; Syzygium aromaticum (Linn.) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Lavanga (Cloves) are the dried unopened flower buds of the clove tree. Despite being pungent, they have a cooling potency (Sheeta Virya), which makes them unique among spices. Cloves are one of the most versatile aromatic drugs in Ayurveda - they improve digestion, relieve nausea and vomiting, benefit the heart, and help in respiratory conditions. The essential oil is rich in Eugenol which has strong antiseptic and analgesic properties, making cloves particularly useful for dental pain. Mother cloves (fruits) are also used. Cloves pacify all three doshas.
Cluster Fig
उदुम्बर
Ficus glomerata Roxb.
Udumbara (Cluster Fig) is a moderate-sized spreading tree found throughout India in moist regions. The fruit receptacles are borne in large clusters on the main trunk and larger branches. The bark, latex, fruits and leaves are used medicinally. The unripe fruit is astringent and useful in diarrhea, dysentery and menorrhagia. The ripe fruit is sweet, cooling and laxative. The bark decoction is used in ulcers, wounds and skin diseases. The latex is applied externally on wounds. The tree is one of the Panchavalkala (five barks used together). Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 9-10.
Cluster Fig Flowers
उदुम्बरपुष्प
Ficus glomerata Roxb.
The flowers of Udumbara (Cluster Fig) are enclosed within the fruit (syconium) and are rarely seen, making them considered rare and auspicious. The fruit receptacle containing the flowers is used medicinally. It is astringent and cooling, used in bleeding disorders and diarrhea.
Cobra's Saffron
नागकेशर
Mesua ferrea Linn.
Nagakeshara is a large evergreen tree; its stamens are used medicinally. It is described as the first drug in the Nagakeshara group. The dried flower stamens are golden-yellow and aromatic. It is one of the finest Ayurvedic drugs for bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), excessive thirst, and skin diseases. Being absorbent (Grahi), it is used in diarrhea and dysentery. The commentary mentions that Calophyllum inophyllum is sometimes confused with Nagakeshara but is a different drug called Punnaga. True Nagakeshara comes from Mesua ferrea found in Assam, Bengal, and the Western Ghats. The drug is bitter and astringent with hot potency. It pacifies Kapha and Pitta. The stamens are used internally for bleeding piles, dysentery, and bleeding disorders, and externally as a paste for skin conditions. Dose: 1-2 grams.
Cockscomb
मयूरशिखा
Celosia cristata Linn.
Celosia cristata (Cockscomb) is grown as an ornamental in gardens at up to 4000 feet. It has characteristic crest-shaped flower heads. The flowers contain Betanin pigment. The flowers are used in bleeding disorders. It is one of the three plants identified as Mayurshikha. Verse: 289.
Coconut
नारिकेल
Cocos nucifera Linn.
Narikela (Coconut) is one of the most important palms, extensively cultivated in coastal India. Every part of the palm is useful - the nut, water, copra, oil, shell, husk, trunk and leaves. The coconut water (tender coconut) is extremely cooling, sweet, nutritive, and is one of the best drinks for dehydration. The mature kernel yields coconut oil which is used extensively in cooking, hair care and medicine. The cream/milk is nutritive and aphrodisiac. Tender coconut water is used in Mutrakrichhra (dysuria) and Daha (burning sensation). Coconut oil is used in skin diseases, hair care and as a base for medicated oils. Different stages of coconut have different properties - tender coconut water is lighter and more cooling while the mature kernel is heavier and more nutritive. There are many varieties of coconut palms. Chemical analysis shows the nut contains 40-50% oil in mature form. The water contains vitamins, minerals and electrolytes. Dose: Coconut water freely; oil as per need. Verses: 9.
Coconut Oil Properties
नारिकेल तैल
Cocos nucifera Linn.
Properties of coconut oil described separately - it is cooling, nourishing, and one of the best oils for hair and skin. Used as base oil in many Ayurvedic medicated oils. Promotes hair growth and prevents premature greying. Used in cooking extensively in Kerala and coastal regions. Verse mentioned.
Colocynth
इन्द्रवारुणी
Citrullus colocynthis Schrad
Indrayan or Colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis) is a wild climbing gourd with extremely bitter fruits. The fruit pulp is the primary medicinal part. It is one of the most potent purgatives in Ayurvedic practice. The text describes it as bitter (Tikta), hot in potency (Ushna), and strongly purgative. It is useful in constipation, liver disorders, abdominal distension, worm infestations, and Kapha-Vata diseases. The Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum is mentioned as a useful preparation. A diluted tannic acid solution is recommended for managing overdose symptoms. The text covers this herb extensively across pages 404-405, including varieties and medicinal preparations.
Colophon — End of Bhavaprakash Nighantu
समाप्ति
The Anekarthanama Varga concludes the Nighantu Bhaga (Materia Medica section) of the Bhavaprakash. The colophon (इति श्रीमिश्रभट्टचतुर्वर्गतत्त्वशास्त्रीयभावप्रकाशवरिस्तवने भावप्रकाशो निघण्टुप्रकरणे) marks the completion of the Bhavaprakash Nighantu by Sri Bhavamisra. Following this Nighantu section, the book contains appendices (Parishishta) compiled by the commentator Dr. K.C. Chunekar and the publisher, which include an alphabetical index (Parishishta 1) of drugs with Hindi and English names, botanical identifications, and cross-references to the main text. The Samasta Shastra Nighantu Bhaga (complete materia medica section) thus encompasses 23 chapters (vargas) covering the entire range of Ayurvedic pharmacognosy from medicinal plants, minerals, metals, animal products, food items, water, and this final chapter on drug-name disambiguation. The appendices that follow (Parishishta 1 and 2) are editorial additions by the modern editors and commentators, providing botanical identifications, Hindi-Sanskrit-English cross-references, and indexes for practical use.
Nala
नल
Phragmites kirka
Nala (Phragmites) is the common reed growing near water bodies. It is related to Nala mentioned in conjunction with Lobelia nicotianaefolia (Wild Lobelia/Wild Tobacco) and Campanulaceae family plants. The reed is used as a diuretic and coolant. Its root decoction is given in urinary disorders and burning sensation. Dose: decoction 1-2 tola.
Conch Shell
शंख
Turbinella pyrum (Conch shell — CaCO3)
Shankha (Conch Shell) Bhasma is an important antacid preparation in Ayurveda. It is used in hyperacidity, indigestion, colic pain, and worm infestations. The Bhasma is prepared by incinerating conch shell after purification. It is one of the most commonly used marine-origin Bhasmas. Shankha Vati (tablets) are a popular preparation for digestive disorders. Verses: 141-143.
Copper
ताम्र
Cuprum (Cu)
Tamra (Copper) is described as the third important metal. Two types are recognized: Nepalese copper and Mlechha copper. Good copper is reddish, soft, heavy, and lustrous. Tamra Bhasma is one of the most important preparations in Rasa Shastra. It is used in liver disorders, spleen enlargement, skin diseases, piles, anemia, and abdominal diseases. Improperly prepared copper Bhasma can cause severe vomiting, burning, and toxicity. It is an excellent Krimighna (anthelmintic) and Yakrituttejaka (liver stimulant). Verses: 19-22.
Copper Pyrites
स्वर्णमाक्षिक
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
Swarnamakshika (Copper Pyrites) is a golden-yellow mineral. Two types exist: Swarna Makshika (gold-colored, contains copper) and Rajata Makshika (silver-colored, contains iron). Swarna Makshika Bhasma is an important preparation used in anemia, eye diseases, skin diseases, and as a Rasayana. It is a natural source of iron and copper. The Bhasma is cooling and palatable. Verses: 123-128.
Copper Pyrites — Nilanjana
तुत्थ
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4·5H2O)
Tuttha (Copper Sulphate/Blue Vitriol) is a blue crystalline mineral compound. It is primarily used externally in eye diseases as a collyrium (Anjana), wound healing, and skin diseases. Internally in purified form, it is used as an emetic and in worm infestations. It is strongly emetic and should be used with caution. Verses: 43-45.
Parijata
पारिजात
Erythrina indica Lam.
Parijata/Pharahad (Erythrina indica), the Coral Tree, is a deciduous tree with thorny bark and brilliant red flowers. The bark has a bitter taste and is used in fever, rheumatic conditions, and parasitic infections. The text describes its leaves as trifoliate, with thorny branches. Bark decoction is used for fevers and joint pain. The alkaloid Erythrine gives it anti-inflammatory properties. It is particularly noted for Vata-dominant conditions. The seeds are used as beads and the wood is light. The bark and leaves have been found to contain alkaloids with both analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.
Coral Tree Flowers
पारिजात
Erythrina indica Lam.
The text notes that some scholars identify Parijata as Erythrina indica (Coral Tree). However, Chunekar clarifies that the true Parijata is Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Night Jasmine). Erythrina indica is called Mandara or Pangara. It has bright red-coral colored flowers and thorny bark. The bark and leaves are used medicinally, especially as an anthelmintic. Also noted: Abroma augusta and Pterospermum acerifolium as other candidates for the 'Parijata' name. Verse: commentary notes.
Kapasa
कार्पास
Gossypium herbaceum Linn.
Karpasa (Gossypium herbaceum) is the common cotton plant, widely cultivated. The seeds, root bark, and cotton fiber are used medicinally. The plant grows 3-4 feet tall with yellow flowers. The seed oil is used as Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and for cooking. The root bark is a well-known galactagogue and is used to promote lactation. Cotton seed contains Gossypol, which has contraceptive properties in males. The seeds are 20-25% oil content. The cotton fiber itself is used in wound dressing. Root bark decoction is given for promoting breast milk. Cotton seed oil is used medicinally in Vata disorders. The seed cake after oil extraction is used as animal feed. Ergot-like contamination can occur on cotton bolls. Dose: seed 2-4 masha; root bark decoction 1-2 tola.
Bala
बला
Sida cordifolia Linn.
Bala (Sida cordifolia) is one of the most important Rasayana drugs in Ayurveda. It is a small shrub growing commonly in waste lands. The entire plant, especially the root, is used medicinally. Four types of Bala are recognized in classical texts: Bala (Sida cordifolia), Atibala (Abutilon indicum), Nagabala (Grewia hirsuta), and Mahabala. Bala is the premier Vatahara and Balya drug - it increases strength (Bala), nourishes Ojas, and acts as a powerful tonic and rejuvenative. The root decoction is used in Vata diseases, nervous debility, and as a general restorative. It contains small amounts of Ephedrine. It is sweet in taste and cold in potency, making it ideal for Pitta-Vata conditions. Used extensively in medicated oils (Bala Taila) for external application in neuromuscular disorders. Dose: root powder 1-2 masha; decoction 1-2 tola.
Cowhage
कपिकच्छु
Mucuna pruriens Belc.
Kapikacchu (Mucuna pruriens) is a well-known climbing plant whose seeds are highly valued as an aphrodisiac (Vrishya) and Vata-alleviating remedy. The plant is covered with stinging hairs on its pods that cause intense itching (Kandu). The seeds are the main part used medicinally. It is described in all Vaishajya names as a premier Vata-shamaka and Vrishya drug. The seeds nourish all Dhatus and increase Shukra (reproductive tissue). The plant has trifoliate leaves and produces characteristic curved pods covered with irritating trichomes. Seeds are used in Parkinsonism (due to L-DOPA content), nervous debility, seminal weakness, and general tonic. The hair of pods is traditionally used as an anthelmintic - mixed with honey it expels roundworms. The roots are also used medicinally as Vrishya. Multiple species including M. pruriens and M. utilis are used. Dose: seed powder 3-6 masha; root powder 1 karsha.
Cowrie Shell
वराटिका
Cypraea moneta (Cowrie shell)
Varatika (Cowrie Shell) Bhasma is used similar to Shankha Bhasma for digestive disorders and hyperacidity. It is milder in action compared to Shankha. Verses: 144-145.
Crinum Lily
सुदर्शन
Crinum latifolium Linn.
Sudarshana (Crinum latifolium) is found in all warm parts of India. It is a bulbous plant with large strap-shaped leaves. The bulb is the main medicinal part. It is applied as a poultice for inflammations and joint pains. The bulbs are 3 or more in number. The plant has large white flowers. Crinum asiaticum is also mentioned as a related species. Note: the Crinum genus (Amaryllidaceae) was discussed in the text. Verse: 270.
Cubeb Pepper
कबाबचीनी
Piper cubeba Linn.
Sheetal Chini (Cubeb Pepper) is the dried unripe fruit of Piper cubeba, a climbing plant of the pepper family. The fruits have a characteristic tail (stalk attached), distinguishing them from black pepper. The text describes it as pungent with heating potency. It is found in tropical forests and is cultivated in Indonesia and India. The fruit is round, 4-6mm in diameter, greyish-brown to black with a distinct stalk (tail). The taste is pungent, aromatic, slightly bitter with camphoraceous flavor. The essential oil contains cubebin, a crystalline compound. The drug is used for respiratory disorders (cough, asthma), oral health (mouth freshener and cleanser), digestive complaints, and urinary disorders. It acts as an expectorant, carminative, and antiseptic. The fruits are similar to black pepper but distinguishable by their tail. The text notes it relieves cough, asthma, and is a good appetizer. Chemical analysis reveals 5-20% cubebin, cubebic acid, and 10-18% essential oil containing sesquiterpenes. Dose: 1-3 grams.
Cucumber
एरावारु
Cucumis trigonus Roxb.
Kheera (Cucumber) is a common vegetable-fruit widely cultivated across India. It is cooling, thirst-quenching and diuretic. The fruit is mainly water and is excellent for summer. It is used in salads and as a cooling agent. The seeds are diuretic and cooling. Cucumber is beneficial in Pitta disorders, burning micturition and thirst. It is a low-calorie food. Dose: As food. Verse: 12.
Danti
दन्ती
Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg.
Danti (Baliospermum montanum) is a small shrub found mainly in hilly regions. The root and seeds are the main medicinal parts. It is a powerful purgative herb, described as sharp (Tikshna) in quality and hot (Ushna) in potency. It acts primarily through purgation (Virechana). The text describes it as useful in Kapha and Pitta disorders, abdominal diseases, skin conditions (Kushtha), worm infestations, splenic enlargement (Pliha), and swellings (Shotha). It is one of the chief purgative herbs mentioned in Ayurveda. The doses mentioned are 1-5 grains for seeds and various preparations for the root. Verse refs: pages 400-401.
Danti
दन्ती
Croton polyandrum; Baliospermum montanum
Danti is an important drastic purgative drug. The text discusses its identification - some identify it as Croton polyandrum while others as Baliospermum montanum (Red Physic Nut). The root and seeds are the main parts used. It is stronger than Trivrit in its purgative action. Used in obstinate constipation, edema (Shotha), ascites (Jalodara), and skin diseases. The seeds are oily and produce strong purgation. The plant has Ricinus-like (castor-like) fruits. It should be used with great caution due to its drastic nature. The purgative action is dose-dependent - small doses cause mild purgation while larger doses cause drastic effects. Dose: root powder 2-3 ratti; seed powder 1-2 ratti.
Danti
दन्ती
Baliospermum montanum Muell.
Danti (Baliospermum montanum) is a powerful purgative drug described alongside other Euphorbiaceae members. It is a shrub found in forests across India. The root is the main medicinal part and is one of the strongest Virechana (purgative) drugs in Ayurveda. It is used in conditions requiring strong downward purging including ascites, tumors, and severe constipation.
Daruharidra
दारुहरिद्रा
Berberis species (B. aristata, B. asiatica, B. lycium)
Berberis species are thorny shrubs of Himalayas. The stem, root, and bark are used. Rasaut (concentrated extract) is made by boiling the bark. Berberine has strong anti-microbial activity — used as eye drops (Berberine Sulphate 0.2%) for conjunctivitis. Modern research confirms anti-diabetic properties.
Daruharidra
दारुहरिद्रा
Berberis aristata DC.
Distinct from Haridra (turmeric). Thorny shrub of Himalayas. Stem and root bark used. Berberine content makes it effective in eye infections (used as Anjana/collyrium) and skin diseases.
Datura
धत्तूर
Datura stramonium Linn.
Dhatura (Datura stramonium) is a well-known narcotic and poisonous plant extensively used in Ayurveda after proper purification (Shodhana). The text describes it as growing up to 3000 feet elevation, with spiny fruit capsules. It contains 0.40% total alkaloids including Hyoscyamine and Atropine. Seeds contain 0.2-0.45% alkaloids and 15-30% fixed oil. The plant has powerful analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic properties. It is applied externally for joint pain, swelling, and skin diseases. Smoke from leaves is used for asthma. The text emphasizes it is a Visha (poison) requiring Shodhana before therapeutic use. Multiple species are described including D. stramonium, D. metel, D. tatula, and D. innoxia.
Delphinium
जडवार
Delphinium zalil Aitch. & Hemsl.
Delphinium zalil is described as a Himalayan herb growing at 5000-12000 feet elevation. The flowers are yellow, pendulous. It is used in fevers, as an anti-poison herb, and for worm infestations. The plant contains flavonoids including Quercetin and Kaempferol. It is used as a dye plant as well. Dose: 2-5 rattis. Verse ref: page 432.
Dendrobium
जीवन्ती
Dendrobium macraei Lindl.
A note in the text identifies Dendrobium macraei (an orchid) as another plant identified as Jivanti by some authorities. It is an epiphytic orchid found on tree branches in moist forests. This reflects the botanical controversy around the true identity of the Ayurvedic drug Jivanti, with Leptadenia reticulata being the most accepted identification.
Dhamasa
धमासा
Fagonia arabica Linn.
Dhamasa (Fagonia arabica) is described alongside Jawaasa as another variety of Duraalbhaa. It is a small, thorny, prickly herb found in dry and arid regions. The text describes its taste as bitter and astringent, qualities as light and dry, and potency as cold. It is useful in fevers, thirst, burning sensations, and blood-related disorders. The plant grows close to the ground with small leaves and thorns on each node. Doses: 1-2 tola decoction; powder 4-9 ratti; 1-8 masha. Verse refs: page 412.
Dhanyaka
धान्यक
Coriandrum sativum Linn.
Unique in that though Ushna Virya, it also has cooling and soothing effects due to Madhura Vipaka. Fresh leaves have more cooling properties than dried seeds.
Dhawai
धातकी
Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz.; Syn: Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.
Flowers are the main part used. Essential ingredient in Asava-Arishta preparations (fermented medicines) where flowers act as a fermenting agent. Red flowers used in Raktapitta and bleeding disorders.
Dhatura
धत्तूर
Datura stramonium Linn. / Datura metel Linn.
Dhatura is a poisonous plant containing tropane alkaloids. After purification (Shodhana), its seeds and leaves are used in asthma, chronic fevers, pain, inflammation, and skin diseases. White and black varieties exist; the white variety is preferred medicinally. It is sacred to Lord Shiva. Excessive dose causes delirium, hallucinations, and death. Applied externally as a pain-relieving paste in joints and inflammatory conditions. Used in fumigation for respiratory disorders. Verses: 179-183.
Dikamali
नाशीहिंगु
Gardenia gummifera Linn.
Small tree in dry deciduous forests. The gum-resin (Dikamali gum) is yellow colored. Used externally and internally.
Dravanti
द्रवन्ती
Jatropha glandulifera; Croton tiglium
Dravanti is described as a more drastic purgative than even Danti. Its exact botanical identity is debated between Jatropha glandulifera and Croton tiglium. The seeds or root are used for powerful purgation. It should be used with extreme caution and only in strong patients. The text warns against its casual use. Dose: very small - 1 ratti.
Drona Pushpi
द्रोणपुष्पी
Leucas cephalotes Spreng.
Dronapushpi (Leucas cephalotes) is an erect annual herb found commonly across India. Its name comes from the Drona-shaped (cup-shaped) inflorescence. The plant has strong aromatic smell. It is used in fevers, coughs, worm infestations, and inflammatory conditions. The juice of leaves is used as nasal drops for headache. It is widely used in folk medicine across India. The plant grows 1-3 feet tall with square stems and opposite leaves. Dose: Swarasa 2-4 tola. Verse: 271-274.
Sahjan
शोभाञ्जन
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.
Sahjan (Moringa pterygosperma/oleifera), the Drumstick Tree, is extensively described as both a food and medicine. The text states it grows in all regions of India and in all seasons. The drumstick-shaped pods are 10-25 inches long and widely consumed as a vegetable. The root bark, leaves, flowers, pods, and seeds all have medicinal value. Spirochin and Pterygospermin are identified as unique antibiotic compounds. The seed oil (Ben-oil) is non-drying and used in perfumery. The root tastes like horseradish. The tree has powerful anti-bacterial properties - its extracts are effective against both Gram-positive (Staphylococcal, Streptococcal) and Gram-negative organisms. The bark is used in scurvy, and the leaves as a vegetable provide excellent nutrition. The root bark has rubefacient properties and is used for fevers and inflammation. A related species Moringa concanensis is also mentioned.
Durva
दूर्वा
Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.
Durva (Cynodon dactylon) is the sacred Bermuda grass, extensively used in Hindu rituals and Ayurvedic medicine. It grows commonly as a creeping grass spreading through stolons. It is one of the most important Raktapitta-hara (anti-hemorrhagic) drugs. The juice is cooling, sweet, and astringent. It is used in epistaxis (nosebleeds), excessive menstruation, and other bleeding conditions. The fresh juice is applied externally on wounds and cuts to stop bleeding. It is also used in Pitta-dominant conditions, burning sensation, and excessive thirst. The grass has strong hemostatic properties. It is considered sacred and used in worship of Lord Ganesha. The roots spread extensively underground. Dose: juice 1-2 tola; paste externally.
Dvyarthini Nama-Glossary: Systematic Drug Disambiguation List
द्व्यर्थिनीनामानि
The bulk of this varga consists of extensive two-column lists where each term is given with its two (or more) possible referents. The format on each page is typically: Term — Meaning 1 and Meaning 2. Representative entries from the systematic list: - Priyamgu (प्रियंगु) — Falini (a grain) and Kunguma (saffron-like). - Priyabhu (प्रियभू) — Kukshipaku and Kungini. - Shubha (शुभ) — Shusha-anga and Tattva. - Saumya (सौम्य) — Saptapatra and Kampuka. - Vichasa (विचासा) — Shatapatra and Karpasika. - Lohita (लोहित) — Raktachandan (red sandalwood) and Kumkuma (saffron). - Kamala (कमल) — Padma (lotus) and a type of disease (jaundice). - Darbha (दर्भ) — Kusha grass and Karnikara. - Amra (आम्र) — Mango and Amrataka (hog plum). - Nagara (नागर) — Shunthi (dry ginger) and a city/town. - Pippali (पिप्पली) — Long pepper (fruit) and a type of measurement. The list continues extensively for many pages, covering hundreds of terms.
Dwarf Cherry
पवसताकू
Prunus cerasus Linn.
The text mentions Dwarf Cherry (Prunus cerasus) in the Karpuradi Varga context. The cherry tree produces small sour fruits. It is found in temperate regions. The bark and fruit are medicinally used. The tree has 2-3 inch leaves and pink-white flowers appearing before leaves. The bark exudes a gum. The fruits are sour-astringent. It is cooling and used as an absorbent.
Elephant Creeper / Munjatka / Ramachandra
मुञ्जातक
Munjatka is briefly mentioned as a strengthening herb.
Paraska
परसका
Typha elephantina Roxb.
Paraska (Typha elephantina) is the elephant grass or broad-leaved cattail found in marshy areas. It grows abundantly near ponds and wetlands. The pollen and roots are used. The pollen has hemostatic properties. The roots are used as a diuretic. The plant grows 5-6 feet tall in marshy areas. The leaves are used for weaving mats. Dose: root decoction 2-4 tola.
End Section: Characteristics of fruits in general
फलवर्ग सामान्य
Various
The Varga concludes with general rules about fruit consumption: Ripe fruits are generally preferred over unripe. Seasonal fruits are best consumed in their appropriate season. Fruits should be eaten fresh when possible. Over-ripe and decayed fruits should be avoided. Fruits generally increase Kapha (most being sweet and heavy). Sour fruits increase Pitta. Fruits are important for nutrition but should be consumed according to one's constitution and season. The commentary includes notes on proper timing of fruit consumption, incompatible food combinations (Viruddha Ahara), and specific dietary guidelines. The chapter also mentions some later additions covering fruits introduced to India after the original text was written. Verses: Concluding section.
False Ashoka
अशोक
Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f.
Polyalthia longifolia is commonly but incorrectly used as 'Ashoka'. It is a tall columnar tree with drooping branches and wavy-edged leaves. Unlike the true Ashoka (Saraca indica), this tree does not have the same uterine tonic properties. The tree is widely planted as an ornamental along roads. The leaves are long and undulating. The flowers are small, green, and inconspicuous. It is important to distinguish this from Saraca indica for medicinal purposes. Verse: 25 (commentary note).
False Daisy
मण्डूकपर्णी
Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban
Mandukparni (Centella asiatica) is one of the premier Medhya (brain tonic) herbs. It grows near water bodies and in marshy areas at up to 2000 feet altitude. Its kidney-shaped leaves resemble a frog's foot (Manduka = frog). It is widely used in memory disorders, cognitive decline, anxiety and as a general nerve tonic. In South India it is commonly known as Vallarai. Hydrocotyline and Asiaticoside are the main active compounds. It improves learning ability and concentration. Used extensively in pediatric brain development. The whole herb is used. Dose: Swarasa 2-4 tola; Kvatha 4-8 tola. Also mentioned: Hydrocotyle asiatica. Verse: 271-272.
Karanj
कँट करंज
Caesalpinia bonduce-lla Fleming; C. crista Linn.
Kant Karanj (Caesalpinia bonducella) is a thorny climber with feathery leaves and yellow flowers. The seeds are used medicinally and are known as Bonduc nuts. It grows up to 2500 feet altitude in many regions of India. The plant has compound leaves that are bipinnate. The seeds are hard, grey, and round. The seed kernel is extremely bitter and used primarily as an antipyretic (febrifuge). It is particularly effective against intermittent fevers (Vishama Jvara). The oil from seeds, called Hongay oil, is used externally for skin diseases including Scabies and Herpes. The bark is also used in treatment of periodic fevers. Chemical analysis shows Bonducin as the key active principle. Dose: seeds 1-3 ratti; bark decoction 2-4 tola.
Ficus
ब्रायमाणा
Ficus heterophylla Linn. f.
Ficus heterophylla is briefly mentioned in the text. It is a variety of fig tree with variable leaf shapes. The bark and latex are used medicinally. It has astringent and anti-diarrheal properties. Verse ref: page 432.
Nirgundi
निर्गुण्डी
Vitex negundo Linn.
Nirgundi (Vitex negundo), the Five-Leaved Chaste Tree, is one of the most important herbs for Vata disorders and pain management in Ayurveda. The text describes both the Sinduvar (white-flowered) and Nirgundi (blue-flowered) varieties. It is a large shrub with 3-5 compound leaflets. The leaves, seeds, and root are all used medicinally. The leaf juice is used for ear and eye diseases. Oil prepared with Nirgundi leaves (Nirgundi Taila) is a classical remedy for joint pain and inflammation. It has potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. The text also describes its use in headache, fever, skin diseases, and respiratory disorders. The related species V. trifolia is also described. The fresh leaf poultice is applied to painful joints, and the leaf decoction is used as a gargle for mouth ulcers.
Five-leaved Chaste Tree - reference
निर्गुण्डी
Vitex negundo Linn.
Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) is cross-referenced here within the Guduchyadi Varga. It is a large shrub with aromatic, five-lobed compound leaves. The leaves are the primary medicinal part and are used extensively for joint pains and inflammatory conditions. The leaf paste or oil is applied externally for arthritis and muscular pain. This reference links to the main description elsewhere in the text.
Sahadevi
सहदेवी
Vernonia cinerea Less.
Sahadevi (Vernonia cinerea) is an erect herb commonly found in fields and waste lands. It has purple flower heads. The entire plant is used medicinally. It is bitter in taste and pungent in post-digestive effect. It is useful in fevers, skin diseases, and worm infestations. The juice of the plant is used as an anthelmintic. It is sometimes confused with Nagabala species but belongs to a completely different botanical family (Compositae). Dose: juice 1-2 tola; powder 2-4 masha.
Fox Nut
मखान
Euryale ferox Salisb.
Makhana (Fox Nut/Gorgon Nut) is an aquatic plant found in ponds and lakes, particularly in Bihar and Eastern India. The puffed seeds (Makhana) are a popular dry fruit and fasting food. They are sweet, nutritive, aphrodisiac and easy to digest when roasted. Makhana is widely used in Indian sweets and curry preparations. It is strengthening and beneficial in Prameha (diabetes), weakness, and seminal debility. The puffed nuts are light and digestible. They are considered one of the best Vrishya (aphrodisiac) foods. Rich in protein, starch and minerals. Dose: As food; powder 1-2 tola. Verse: 32.
Fragrant Screw Pine
केतकी
Pandanus odoratissimus Linn.
Ketaki (Fragrant Screw Pine) is mentioned in the context of aromatic substances. The male flowers are highly fragrant and yield the famous Kewda water and Kewda attar used in perfumery and flavoring. The plant is found throughout coastal India. The leaves are long and spiny. The flower is used for its aromatic and cooling properties. It is considered an aphrodisiac, heart tonic, and complexion enhancer. The aromatic water distilled from the flowers is widely used in traditional Indian desserts and beverages.
Frankincense
कुन्दुरु
Boswellia carterii Birdw. & other sp.
Kunduru (Frankincense/Indian Olibanum) is the gum-resin of Boswellia species. It is a fragrant resin used both as incense and medicine. The drug has notable anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties attributed to its boswellic acid content. It is used in joint disorders, wound healing, and as a fumigant. The gum-resin is yellowish and aromatic with bitter-sweet taste.
Gajapippali
गजपिप्पली
Scindapsus officinalis Schott
Large climbing plant of Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Dried fruit spikes (5-10 cm) resemble long pepper but larger. Used as substitute for Pippali.
Galangal
सुगन्धवचा
Kaempferia galanga Linn.
Sugandha Vacha (Galangal/Kaempferia galanga) is mentioned in the text as a fragrant rhizome sometimes confused with or substituted for Kapur Kachri (Hedychium spicatum). The rhizome is small, aromatic, and camphoraceous. It is used as a digestive, expectorant, and for Vata disorders. The plant is low-growing with round leaves close to the ground and white flowers with purple markings. It is cultivated in southern India and Southeast Asia.
Gambhari
गम्भारी
Gmelina arborea Linn.
Gambhari (Gmelina arborea) is one of the Dashamula (Brihat Panchamula) group of drugs. It is a large deciduous tree found throughout India. The fruit is sweet and sour, described as Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Rasayana (rejuvenative). The root is the main medicinal part used in Dashamula combinations. The tree bark, root, flowers, and fruits all have therapeutic applications. Gambhari fruit is specifically noted for its cooling effect despite Ushna Virya, and it alleviates burning sensation (Daha) and excessive thirst (Trishna). It is among the key ingredients of Dashamularishta and Chyawanprash.
Gamboge Tree
तमाल
Garcinia morella Desr.
Tamala (Indian Gamboge) is a large evergreen tree found in the forests of Western Ghats and Southern India. The tree exudes a yellow resin (Gamboge) from incisions in the bark, which is used medicinally and as a pigment. The resin is a powerful purgative. Tamala bark yields approximately 40 percent resin. The tree grows up to 2000 feet elevation in the Western Ghats. The bark is thick and exfoliating. The fruit is edible. The Gamboge resin is used in small doses as a drastic purgative and in larger doses causes emesis. It is used in dropsy, worm infestations, and constipation. Dose: Gamboge 1-2 grain (very small doses as it is a powerful purgative). Verses: 24.
Gandhamashika
गन्धमाषिक
Not definitively identified
Gandhamashika is described as a musk-scented aromatic substance used in fumigation and aromatic preparations. The exact identity is debated in the commentary.
Gandhaprasarini
प्रसारिणी
Paederia foetida Linn.
Gandhaprasarini (Paederia foetida) is a climbing vine known for its strong fetid smell when crushed. The plant grows up to 4000 feet elevation. The leaves and stems are the main medicinal parts. It is described as bitter, pungent, light, unctuous, and hot in potency. It is primarily useful in Vata disorders - joint pain, rheumatism, swellings, and as an analgesic. It promotes healing of tissues (Sandhaniya). Used in various external applications for pain relief. The foetid odor is characteristic. Verse refs: pages 424-425.
Ganthiyapravala
गन्ध्यपलाशी
Aganosma caryophyllata G. Don.
Aganosma caryophyllata is a climbing plant belonging to the Apocynaceae family. The text describes it as an aromatic plant with clove-like fragrance. The flowers are white and clustered, 3.5-4.5 inches across in corymbs. The leaves are 2-3 inch long with entire margins. The plant produces small follicle fruits. It is found in the Western Ghats and peninsular India. The flowers are fragrant and used in garlands and aromatic preparations. It has cooling properties and is beneficial for complexion.
Garlic
रसोन
Allium sativum Linn.
Garlic (Rasona/Lahsun) is one of the most important medicinal foods in Ayurveda. Contains Allicin, a powerful antibacterial and antifungal compound. Used extensively in cardiac disorders — modern research confirms cholesterol-lowering and blood-pressure-reducing effects. Called Rasona because it has 5 of the 6 Rasas (all except Amla/sour).
Gauva Persimmon
तिन्दुक
Diospyros embryopteris Pers.
Tinduka (Gaub Persimmon/Tendu) is a moderate-sized tree found in the forests of Central and Southern India. The leaves are commercially important as they are used for making Bidi (Indian cigarettes). The ripe fruit is sweet-astringent and edible. The unripe fruit is very astringent and used in diarrhea. The bark is astringent and used in dysentery. The fruit juice is used as a natural fixative. The tree is an important source of non-timber forest produce. The leaves contain tannins. Dose: Fruit as food; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 18.
Gems Summary & Ratna Properties
रत्न
Various gemstones
The text describes the general properties of nine Ratnas (Navaratna) — Diamond (Vajra/Heera), Ruby (Padmaraga/Manikya), Emerald (Marakata/Panna), Blue Sapphire (Neelam/Indranila), Pearl (Mukta/Moti), Coral (Pravala/Munga), Yellow Sapphire (Pushparaga), Cat's Eye (Vaidurya), and Hessonite (Gomedaka). Each gem is associated with a planetary deity. Gems that are flawed, cracked, or impure should not be worn or used medicinally as they can cause harm. The Uparatnas (semi-precious stones) such as Turquoise, Garnet, Cat's Eye etc. are also mentioned briefly. Verses: 89-93.
Gems — Coral
प्रवाल
Red Coral (CaCO3 — Corallium rubrum)
Pravala (Red Coral) is a marine organism (actually the skeleton of coral polyps) considered a gem in Ayurveda. Pravala Bhasma and Pravala Pishti are important preparations. They are used in cough, Pitta disorders, eye diseases, heart weakness, and as a calcium supplement. Coral is cooling and strengthening. The best coral is deep red, smooth, and heavy. Verses: 86-88.
Gems — Diamond
वज्र
Diamond (Carbon — C)
Vajra (Diamond) is considered the king of gems. Diamond Bhasma is extremely powerful and used in very small doses. It is Rasayana and is indicated in tuberculosis, severe debility, chronic diseases, and as a supreme rejuvenative. The text describes various types of diamonds based on color — white, yellowish, reddish, and blackish. Good quality diamond is clear, lustrous, and free from flaws. Diamond must be incinerated properly using Vajra Musa (special crucible). Improperly prepared diamond Bhasma can be extremely dangerous. Verses: 69-73.
Gems — Emerald
मरकत
Emerald (Be3Al2Si6O18 — Beryl)
Marakata (Emerald) is a green precious gemstone. Its Bhasma is used in poisoning, heart diseases, and as a rejuvenative. It has cooling properties and is beneficial in Pitta disorders. Good emeralds are deep green, transparent, and lustrous. Verses: 77-78.
Gems — Pearl
मुक्ता
Pearl (Calcium carbonate — CaCO3)
Mukta (Pearl) is one of the most important gems in Ayurvedic therapeutics. Mukta Bhasma (pearl ash) and Mukta Pishti (pearl ground with rose water) are widely used preparations. Pearl is cooling and indicated in burning sensation, Pitta disorders, eye diseases, heart diseases, and as a calcium supplement. The text describes 8 sources of pearls — from oysters (best), conch shells, elephant head, snake hood, bamboo, boar tusk, fish head, and clouds. Oyster pearls are the only medicinally useful ones. Good pearls are white, lustrous, round, and heavy. Verses: 80-85.
Gems — Ruby
माणिक्य
Ruby (Al2O3 — Aluminium oxide with chromium)
Manikya (Ruby) is a precious red gemstone. Ruby Bhasma is used in heart diseases, digestive weakness, eye diseases, and as a rejuvenative. It is considered warming and strengthening. The text describes characteristics of good rubies — deep red color, transparency, and luster. Flawed rubies should not be used medicinally. Verses: 74-76.
Gems — Sapphire
इन्द्रनील
Sapphire (Al2O3 — Corundum with iron/titanium)
Indranila (Blue Sapphire) is a blue precious gemstone. It is considered cooling and anti-toxic. Its Bhasma is used in poisoning and eye diseases. It is associated with Saturn (Shani) in Jyotisha (Vedic astrology). Verses: 79.
Gharilla
मोठेय
Briefly mentioned grass variety with astringent properties.
Giloy
गुडूची
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers
Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), commonly known as Giloy or Amrita (nectar), is the first and foremost herb of the Guduchyadi Varga. It is described as 'Amrita' because it bestows nectar-like benefits -- rejuvenation and longevity. The plant is a large climbing shrub found throughout India, growing on mango and neem trees. Its stems are succulent with long filiform aerial roots. The bitter stem is the main medicinal part. Guduchi is one of the best Rasayanas and Medhya drugs in Ayurveda, and is especially renowned for managing fevers (Jwarahara). When grown on a Neem tree, its properties are considered superior. Guduchi Satva (starch extract) is a widely used preparation for Pitta disorders, burning sensation, and general debility. The text describes it as Tridoshahara (balancing all three doshas) with primary action on Pitta and Kapha.
Gisekia
पाषाणभेदी
Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.
Gisekia (Pashanabhedi variety) is mentioned toward the end of the Karpuradi Varga. The plant is found in dry regions of India. It is a small herb with fleshy leaves. The plant contains oxalic acid and is used in urinary disorders as a lithotriptic (stone-breaking agent). It has bitter and astringent taste with cooling potency.
Glossocardia
पूसा
Glossocardia linearifolia Cass.
Pusa (Glossocardia linearifolia) is a small herb from the Composite family described as another regional variety of Parpata. It grows in southern and western India, reaching about 10 inches in height. The small flower heads (Capitulum) resemble small sunflowers. It has an Involucre of small bracts around the flower head. The plant is used as a febrifuge and coolant. Its bitter taste and cooling nature make it suitable for Pitta-dominant conditions.
Gojiha
गोजिह्वा
Elephantopus scaber Linn.
Gojiha (Elephantopus scaber) is found in India in hilly regions at 4-12 feet elevation. The leaves are large, tongue-shaped, and rough. The root and leaves are used medicinally. It is an important herb for respiratory disorders including cough and asthma. The plant has basal rosette of leaves. The name Gojiha means 'cow's tongue' referring to the shape of the leaves. Antibiotic activity has been reported. Dose: Churna 2-4 tola. Verse: 279-280.
Gokhru
गोक्षुर
Tribulus terrestris Linn.
Gokshura (Tribulus terrestris), known as Gokhru, is one of the most important herbs for the urinary system in Ayurveda. It is the last member of the Dashamula (Laghu Panchamula) group. It is a prostrate or spreading herb found commonly as a weed across India. The fruit has sharp spines that resemble cow's hooves (Go = cow, Kshura = hoof). Gokshura is the premier herb for urinary disorders -- it acts as a diuretic, dissolves urinary stones (Ashmari), relieves painful urination (Mutrakrichchhra), and manages diabetes (Prameha). It is also highly valued as a Vrishya (aphrodisiac) that improves sexual function and semen quality. The text mentions it as Madhura (sweet) in all stages -- taste, potency, and post-digestive effect -- with cooling energy, making it excellent for Pitta-related urinary conditions.
Gold
सुवर्ण
Aurum (Au)
Suvarna (Gold) is the foremost among metals described in Rasa Shastra. It is described as having properties of all three doshas' pacification. Gold Bhasma (incinerated gold) is used as a powerful rejuvenative and is indicated in tuberculosis, infertility, heart diseases, mental weakness, poisoning, and chronic debilitating conditions. It enhances Ojas (vitality), Buddhi (intellect), and Bala (strength). Gold is classified into 7 types based on source and quality. It must be purified (shodhana) and incinerated (marana) before internal use. The metals are listed as: Sona (gold), Chandi (silver), Tamba (copper), Ranga (tin), Sisa (lead), and Loha (iron) — these are the 7 Dhatus. Verses: 1-8.
Gold — Description & Identification
सुवर्ण
Aurum (Au)
Description of the characteristics and identification of gold. Good-quality gold (Suvarna) is described through its physical characteristics — luster, malleability, color and weight. Gold should be pure, lustrous and free from impurities. It undergoes various purification processes (Shodhana) before being converted to Bhasma. The text describes the Marana (incineration) process and ways to test the quality of gold Bhasma. The uses of Suvarna as ornamental and medicinal are extensively described. Verses: 2.
Golden Champa
चम्पक
Michelia champaca Linn.
Champaka (Michelia champaca) is a tall, handsome tree found in tropical forests. It can grow 20 feet tall. The golden-yellow flowers are extremely fragrant and are prized in Indian culture. The flowers are used in worship, garlands, and medicine. The bark and flowers are used as a febrifuge. The tree has smooth, oval leaves. The flowers are 2 to 6 in number at leaf axils. Champaka oil is used in perfumery. The wood is also valued. The flowers are rich in essential oils. The tree grows at 4-20 feet in hilly areas. Dose: Flower paste; Churna 3-6 grams. Verse: 14-15.
Gorakhmundi
मुण्डी
Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.
Gorakhmundi or Mundi (Sphaeranthus indicus) is a small, prostrate herb found in marshy areas and wet lands. The plant reaches about 4000 pods of small globe-shaped flower heads. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is described as bitter, astringent, pungent, light, dry, and hot in potency. It is specifically mentioned for treating skin diseases (Kushtha), worm infestations, diabetes (Prameha), blood impurities, swellings, and fevers. The globe-shaped flower heads are the most characteristic feature. The plant flowers in rainy and winter seasons. It is used in chronic skin diseases and has blood-purifying properties. There is also a species S. amaranthoides noted. The text also mentions Maha Mundi (larger variety). Dose: 1-2 tola juice or decoction. Verse refs: pages 413-414.
Gorocana
गोरोचना
Extractum fellis bovini (Purified Ox-Gall)
Gorocana is a biliary concretion found in the gall bladder of cattle. It is golden-yellow in color and has been highly valued in Ayurveda since ancient times. The text describes it as a cooling substance that is bitter in taste. It is considered auspicious and is used in many religious and ceremonial purposes as well. Medicinally, it is used as an antidote to poisons, in fevers, and for improving complexion. It is an ingredient in many classical formulations for pediatric disorders. The genuine article is very rare and expensive. It alleviates Pitta and Kapha doshas.
Governors Plum
विकङ्कत
Flacourtia ramontchi L'Herit
Vikankatha (Governor's Plum) is a thorny tree found in the forests of India. The fruit is small, sour and eaten fresh or dried. It is appetizing and used in digestive disorders. The bark is astringent. Dose: As food. Verse: 30.
Grape varieties and Raisins
मृद्वीका
Vitis vinifera Linn.
Munakka (large seeded raisins) and Kishmish (small seedless raisins) are the dried forms of grapes, extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Munakka is preferred medicinally as it retains more active principles. It is soaked in water overnight and eaten in the morning for constipation. It is used in cough formulations, as a gentle laxative, and in various Lehya preparations. Munakka with milk is a classic Vrishya (aphrodisiac) remedy. Dose: 5-10 pieces soaked. Verses continued.
Grapes
द्राक्षा
Vitis vinifera Linn.
Draksha (Grapes) is one of the most valued fruits in Ayurveda, mentioned as the best among fruits by many authorities. The vine is cultivated in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and parts of North India. The fruit is sweet-sour, nutritive, cooling and is one of the best natural laxatives. Dried grapes (Munakka/Kishmish) are extensively used in Ayurvedic formulations. Draksha is an important ingredient in many Asava-Arishta preparations including Draksharishta. The fruit improves appetite, aids digestion, and is excellent for the eyes and heart. It is mildly laxative and beneficial in constipation. Munakka (large dried grapes with seeds) is more potent medicinally than Kishmish (seedless raisins). Grapes are beneficial in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), Kamala (jaundice), Kasa (cough) and Jwara (fever). Draksha is used in numerous classical formulations. Dose: Fruit as food; Munakka 5-10 pieces; Draksharishta 15-30 ml. Verses: Detailed description.
Greater Cardamom
स्थूलैला
Amomum subulatum Roxb.
Sthula Ela (Greater Cardamom) is the dried capsular fruit of Amomum subulatum, primarily cultivated in Nepal and sub-Himalayan regions. The fruits are larger than lesser cardamom and have a smoky flavor. They are used as a spice and medicine, particularly for oral hygiene, respiratory complaints, and urinary disorders. The drug is cooling in potency despite being pungent.
Guava
अमृतफल
Psidium guajava Linn.
Amrud (Guava) is a small tree introduced to India from tropical America but now widely cultivated across the country. The fruit is very popular and is one of the richest sources of Vitamin C. The ripe fruit is sweet-astringent and is eaten fresh. The unripe fruit is more astringent and used in diarrhea. The leaves are used in diarrhea and dysentery (leaf decoction). The bark is astringent. However, guava is considered somewhat Vatakara (Vata-aggravating) and should be eaten in moderation by Vata constitution individuals. The fruit seeds are hard and may cause constipation in some people. Dose: As food; leaf decoction 1-2 tola. Note: This is a later addition as guava is a New World fruit.
Gudakeriri
गुडाकेरीरी
Brief mention of a Euphorbia variety with properties similar to Snuhi but milder in action.
Gudmar
मेषश्रृंगी
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.
This entry captures the extended discussion of Gudmar/Meshashringi (Gymnema sylvestre) in the text. The text reiterates its primary role as an anti-diabetic herb. Chewing the leaves suppresses sweet taste for 1-2 hours. It has been shown to help lower blood sugar levels. The leaves contain Gymnemic acid which blocks sugar receptors. The text emphasizes it is particularly useful in Prameha (metabolic/urinary disorders) and Madhumeha (diabetes mellitus). The herb has also been used for eye disorders, urinary problems, and worm infestations. It is a woody climber found in tropical forests. The opposite, oval leaves are the main medicinal part. Dose: leaf powder 3-6 grams. Verse refs: pages 443-444.
Gudmar
मेषश्रृंगी
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.
Gudmar / Meshashringi (Gymnema sylvestre) is the most celebrated anti-diabetic herb in Ayurveda. Its Hindi name 'Gudmar' literally means 'sugar destroyer' because chewing its leaves temporarily abolishes the ability to taste sweetness. The leaves are the primary medicinal part. The text describes it as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and hot in potency. Its primary indication is Madhumeha (diabetes mellitus). The leaves contain Gymnemic acid (Gymnemine) which blocks sweet taste receptors on the tongue. It is also useful in urinary disorders, worm infestations, eye diseases, and Kapha conditions. The plant is a woody climber growing in tropical forests. The leaves are opposite, oval-shaped. When chewed, sweet taste disappears for 1-2 hours, which is a diagnostic test for the herb's authenticity. Dose: leaf powder 3-6 grams; decoction 50-100 ml. Verse refs: pages 443-444.
Guduchi Satva
गुडूची सत्व
Tinospora cordifolia (starch extract)
Guduchi Satva is the starch extract obtained from the fresh stems of Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia). The text describes the process of preparation: fresh Guduchi stems are crushed and soaked in water, the starch is allowed to settle, and the water is decanted. The white sediment is dried as Guduchi Satva. It is especially indicated in Pittaja disorders, Daha (burning sensation), Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), and as a Rasayana (rejuvenative). It is lighter and easier to digest than the raw herb.
Guduchi-patra
लघुदन्ती
Laghu Danti is the smaller variety of Danti with milder purgative action. It is used when a gentler purgation is desired compared to the main Danti.
Guggulu
गुग्गुलु
Balsamodendron mukul Hook. ex Stocks
Guggulu is the oleo-gum resin obtained from the bark of Balsamodendron mukul. Five varieties are described based on color. It is one of the most important drugs in Ayurveda for Vata disorders, obesity, and joint diseases. Guggulu has powerful anti-inflammatory and lipid-lowering properties. It is the base material for numerous Ayurvedic compound formulations (Guggulu Kalpas) including Yogaraja Guggulu, Triphala Guggulu, and Kaishore Guggulu. Fresh Guggulu is preferred; old stock loses potency.
Guggulu Patra
गुग्गुलुपत्र
Commiphora wightii (Arnott) Bhandari (leaf)
The text mentions the use of Guggulu leaves in the context of the Karpuradi Varga. While Guggulu resin is described earlier in detail, the leaves are noted here for their aromatic and medicinal properties.
Gulsakari
गुलसकरी
Sida spinosa Linn.
Gulsakari (Sida spinosa) is another variety in the Bala group. Sida rhombifolia and Grewia hirsuta are also identified as related species. Various Bala substitutes and related plants are discussed: Sida cordifolia (Bala), Sida rhomboidea, Sida rhombifolia (Arrow leaf Sida), Sida veronicaefolia (Nagabala), Vernonia cinerea (Sahadevi). These are all used for strengthening and Vata-alleviating purposes.
Hadjod
अस्थिसंहारी
Vitis quadrangularis Wall. (Syn. Cissus quadrangularis Linn.)
Hadjod (Vitis/Cissus quadrangularis) is famously known as the 'bone-setter' herb. The text describes it as a climbing plant with quadrangular (four-angled) fleshy stems that break easily at nodes. The stems are the main medicinal part. It is rich in calcium (Calcium oxalate), Carotene, and Vitamin C. It is described as sweet, pungent, light, dry, and hot in potency. Its primary action is promoting bone healing (Asthisandhankara) - it is the herb of choice for fracture healing in Ayurveda. It is also useful in digestive disorders, hemorrhoids, ear diseases, eye diseases, and Vata disorders. The paste is applied externally on fractures and bone injuries. It has anabolic steroid-like properties that promote bone growth. Stems are collected, cleaned, and used fresh or dried. Dose: stem juice 10-20 ml; powder 3-6 grams. Verse refs: pages 418-419.
Hansapadi
हंसपदी
Adiantum lunulatum Burm.
Hansapadi (Adiantum lunulatum) is a delicate fern, commonly called Maidenhair Fern. The fronds are the medicinal part. The plant grows in shady, moist areas on rocks and walls. It is described as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is primarily used for cough (Kasa), asthma (Shvasa), fever (Jvara), and respiratory conditions. The delicate fan-shaped fronds have a water-repellent surface. Verse refs: page 444.
Hapusha
हपुषा
Juniperus communis Linn.
Two types — Hapusha and Matsyandika. Both aromatic. Used in digestive and urinary disorders.
Harfarevdi
हरफारेवड़ी
Cicca acida (Linn.) Merrill
Star Gooseberry is a small tree found in many parts of India. The fruit is small, sour and acidic, eaten fresh or pickled. It has properties similar to Amalaki (Amla) but is less potent. The bark and roots have astringent properties. The fruit ripens to white-yellow and is clustered along branches. Dose: As food. Verse: 26.
Haridra
हरिद्रा
Curcuma longa Linn.
Detailed description of Curcuma longa. Rhizome used. Contains Curcumin which has proven anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-cancer properties in modern research. One of the most researched herbs globally.
Haritaki
हरीतकी
Terminalia chebula Retz.
Haritaki (Terminalia chebula) is the first and most important drug described in Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Called 'Abhaya' (fearless) because it makes one fearless of disease. It possesses five of the six tastes (all except Lavana/salty), with Kashaya (astringent) being predominant. Seven varieties are described based on region of origin, with Vijaya considered the best. Haritaki is considered Sarva Roga Prashamani (pacifier of all diseases) and is one of the three ingredients of Triphala.
Helicteres
मरोड़फली
Helicteres isora Linn.
Helicteres isora or Marorphali is a small tree with characteristic spirally twisted fruits. The twisted pod shape is very distinctive. The fruits, bark, and root are used medicinally. It is described as astringent, bitter, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is primarily used as an anti-diarrheal (Grahi) and for intestinal worms. Also useful in colic and abdominal disorders. Verse ref: page 437.
Hijjal
समुद्रफल
Barringtonia acutangula (Linn.) Gaertn.
Samudraphala (Barringtonia acutangula) is a tree found near water bodies. The fruit and bark are the main parts used. The bark contains saponin. It has bitter and astringent taste with cold potency. The bark is used in skin diseases and as an anthelmintic. The crushed fruit is used as fish poison (Matsyagandhi). It is a medium-sized tree growing near rivers and lakes. The bark is used in decoction form. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola.
Himalayan Cedar
देवदारु
Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud.
Devadaru (Cedrus deodara, Fam. Pinaceae) is Himalayan Cedar or Deodar, found abundantly in the Western Himalayas at 5000-7000 feet. The tree grows to enormous size — 150 feet tall with girth of 20+ feet. Wood is reddish-brown, aromatic, durable, and insect-resistant. The heartwood and oil are used medicinally. It is bitter-pungent with hot potency, making it useful in Kapha-Vata conditions. Key therapeutic indications include fever, worm infestations, skin diseases, obesity, and urinary disorders. Devadaru oil (Cedarwood oil) is used externally for joint pains and skin diseases. The tree holds sacred significance in Indian tradition. Multiple synonyms reflect its divine association (Deva = divine, Daru = wood). Note: some texts confuse Devadaru with Pita Devadaru (Ougeinia dalbergioides) which is a different plant. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 22-25.
Hingota
हिंगोट
Balanites roxburghii Planch.
Hingota (Desert Date) is a thorny tree found in dry and arid regions of India. The tree grows up to 20 feet or more. The fruit and seed oil are the main medicinal parts. The oil from seeds is purgative and anthelmintic. The fruit pulp is bitter and used in skin diseases and worm infestations. The bark is used as a fish poison in some regions. The seed oil contains saponins and diosgenin. It is used externally in skin diseases and internally as a purgative. Dose: Oil 5-10 drops; fruit decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 22.
Hingu
हिंगु
Ferula narthex / F. foetida
Additional details: Two main types — Hingu (strong, from Ferula narthex) and Hingupatri (milder). Oleo-gum-resin collected by making incisions in root. Best quality from Afghanistan (Bahlika Desha). Used extensively in South Indian cooking.
Hingu
हिंगु
Ferula narthex Boiss.; Ferula foetida Regel
One of the most important kitchen spices and medicines. Especially used in Vata disorders and digestive problems. Dissolved in warm oil or ghee. Two types: Hingu (stronger) and Hingupatri (milder).
Hiptage
माधवी
Hiptage madablota Gaertn.
Madhavi Lata (Hiptage madablota) is a large woody climber with fragrant white-pink flowers with yellow center. The flowers are winged (having 3 wing-like extensions on the fruit). The vine can climb to 4-5 tola in length. It blooms profusely with clusters of fragrant flowers. The bark and flowers are used medicinally. It is found across India. The seeds have characteristic wing-like appendages for wind dispersal. Used in skin diseases and bleeding disorders. Dose: 4-5 drops; wings of the fruit are also used. Verse: 19.
Holy Basil Flowers
तुलसी
Ocimum sanctum Linn.
Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum/tenuiflorum) is one of the most sacred and versatile plants in Indian tradition. It is grown in almost every Hindu household. The plant grows 1-2 feet tall with aromatic leaves. Two main varieties exist - Krishna Tulsi (dark purple) and Rama Tulsi (green). The flowers are small, arranged in whorls on terminal spikes. Tulsi is used extensively for respiratory disorders - coughs, colds, bronchitis and asthma. It is also an excellent febrifuge. The leaves have antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties. Fresh leaf juice is given in fevers and coughs. The plant also has anti-stress (adaptogenic) properties. O. gratissimum Linn. is mentioned as Ram Tulsi. The essential oil contains 0.5% Eugenol. Dose: Swarasa 2-4 tola. Verse: 32-34.
Hornwort
शैवाल
Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.
Ceratophyllum demersum is a submerged aquatic plant found in ponds and lakes. It is rootless and free-floating beneath the water surface. The whorled leaves are finely divided. It is used as an astringent and in some traditional preparations. Vallisneria spiralis Linn. is also mentioned as another submerged aquatic plant in this context. Verse: 7-8.
Ankota
अंकोट
Aesculus indica Colebr.
Ankota (Alangium lamarckii / Aesculus indica) is a tree whose bark and roots are used medicinally. The root bark is emetic and purgative. The bark contains Alangine (Potassium chloride) and Alangine sulphate as active alkaloids. It has sharp and emetic properties when taken in large doses. The root bark in small doses (1-2 grains) acts as a cholagogue. In larger doses it causes vomiting and purgation. The fruit is used in abdominal disorders. The tree bark decoction is used in inflammatory conditions and snake bite. Chemical analysis shows the alkaloid Alangine which has emetic properties similar to ipecac. Dose: root bark 1-2 grain; fruit powder 1-2 masha.
Karanj
करंज
Pongamia glabra Vent.
Karanj (Pongamia glabra) is a large tree commonly found across India. It is considered one of the important medicinal trees. The seeds yield Karanj oil which is extensively used in skin diseases. The bark, leaves, flowers, and seeds are all used medicinally. Karanj oil is effective against Kushtha (skin diseases), Krimi (worms), and Vrana (wounds). It is described as bitter and pungent in taste. The oil is applied externally on scabies, ringworm, and other parasitic skin conditions. Internally it is used as an anthelmintic and digestive stimulant. The tree bark decoction is given in chronic fevers. Dose: oil 5-10 drops; bark powder 1-2 ratti.
Indian Elm
चिरबिल्व
Holoptelea integrifolia Planch.
Chirbilva (Holoptelea integrifolia) is a large deciduous tree found in tropical and subtropical forests. Its bark, leaves, and seeds are used medicinally. The bark paste is applied externally on skin diseases and inflammatory swellings. Internally the bark decoction is used as an anthelmintic. The leaves are used in ringworm and other skin parasitic conditions. It has properties similar to Karanj and is often used as a substitute. The tree bark contains bitter principles that make it useful in skin ailments and digestive disorders.
Indian Elm
गांठदूर्वा
Ganth Durva is a variety of Durva grass with knots at the nodes. It has similar but less potent properties compared to the main Durva grass.
Dankari
डंकारी
Clerodendrum phlomidis; Physalis minima Linn.
Dankari encompasses references to both Clerodendrum phlomidis and Physalis minima. The text mentions that some scholars refer to 'Pankari' as the primary name. Physalis alkekengi (Physalis minima) is the more commonly identified species. It is a small herbaceous plant with bladder-like calyces covering the fruit. The fruits and leaves are used in digestive disorders and inflammatory conditions. Dose: 2-4 masha.
Indian Gooseberry
बदर
Zizyphus sativa Gaertn.
Badara (Jujube/Ber) is a thorny tree or shrub widely found throughout India. The fruit is very popular and eaten fresh or dried. The ripe fruit is sweet, nutritive and strengthening. Improved cultivated varieties are large and fleshy. The dried fruit (Chhuhara) is used medicinally as a demulcent and nutritive. The bark is used in diarrhea. The tree grows in dry regions and is drought-resistant. Jujube fruit alleviates thirst and is soothing. The leaves are used as poultice. There are many cultivated varieties with different sizes and sweetness levels. Dose: Fruit as food. Verses: 22.
Indian Hog Plum
आम्रातक
Spondias mangifera Willd.
Amrataka (Indian Hog Plum) is a large deciduous tree growing in the forests of Eastern India. The fruit is sour-sweet and somewhat similar to mango but smaller. It is eaten raw and used in pickles and chutneys. The fruit is laxative and appetizing. The bark is astringent. The fruit increases Pitta but is good for Vata and Kapha. It is used in various culinary preparations. Dose: Fruit as food. Verses: 2.
Indian Laburnum
अरग्वधपुष्प
Cassia fistula Linn.
The golden yellow flowers of Amaltas (Cassia fistula) hang in beautiful pendulous racemes. The flowers have mild laxative properties. They are cooling and pacify Pitta. The flower decoction is used as a gentle purgative for children. The tree is deciduous and flowers spectacularly in April-June. Referenced in Pushpa Varga among tree flowers.
Atibala
अतिबला
Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sw.
Atibala (Abutilon indicum) is considered superior in strength-giving properties compared to Bala, hence the name 'Ati-bala' (exceeding Bala). It is a shrubby plant growing 4-5 feet in height. The leaves are heart-shaped and velvety. The flowers are yellow. The seeds are kidney-shaped. Roots, leaves, and seeds are used medicinally. It is heavier in quality than Bala and more nourishing. Used in weakness, debility, urinary disorders, and as a galactagogue. The mucilaginous nature makes it useful as a demulcent in urinary burning and dysuria. Dose: decoction 4 tola; seed powder 2-4 masha. Duration: taken for 4-5 days.
Indian Plum
कर्कन्धू
Zizyphus nummularia W. & A.
Shleshmataka (Lasoda/Gunda) is a moderate-sized deciduous tree found throughout India. The fruit is mucilaginous and sticky when ripe. The ripe fruit is eaten and used as a vegetable (pickled as Gunda). The bark is used in dyeing. The fruit is demulcent and used in cough and chest diseases. The mucilage from the fruit is used as a glue. The fruit increases Kapha due to its slimy nature. The bark decoction is used in fevers. Dose: As food; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 40.
Indian Squill
वनपलाण्डु
Urginea indica Kunth. (also Scilla indica Baker)
Wild onion found throughout India. Contains cardiac glycosides similar to Digitalis. Used as cardiac stimulant and diuretic. The bulb is used. Important drug but requires careful dosing due to cardiac glycoside content.
Indian Teak
शाक
Tectona grandis Linn.
Sagona (Indian Teak) is one of the most valuable timber trees in the world. It grows extensively in Central and Western India. The heartwood is extremely durable and resistant to termites. Medicinally, the wood and bark are used. The bark is astringent, used in headache, stomach problems and bilious fevers. The flowers are diuretic. The wood shavings decoction is used in worm infestations. The heartwood oil is used in skin diseases. The bark contains Tectoquinone. Chemical analysis shows the bark contains about 10-12% tannins. The sawdust is used as an antidote for poisoning. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 42.
Indian Valerian
तगर
Valeriana wallichii DC.
Tagara (Valeriana wallichii DC., Fam. Valerianaceae) is Indian Valerian, a well-known sedative herb. The rhizome is the medicinal part. Found in the Himalayas at 5000-9000 feet. The plant has a characteristic strong, somewhat unpleasant odor due to isovaleric acid. It is one of the most important Ayurvedic nervine sedatives. Primarily used for insomnia, epilepsy, psychosis, and headache. Also employed as a cardiac tonic and anti-toxic agent. The root contains essential oil rich in valerenic acid and sesquiterpenes. Some confusion exists between Tagara and Nakhui (Celery seed) — they are different plants. V. hardwickii Wall. is also used in South India under the same name. Asarum europaeum (Europiyan Tagar) was historically used in European practice. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga.
Indigo
नीली
Indigofera tinctoria Linn.
Neeli (Indigofera tinctoria) or Indigo plant is primarily known as a dye-yielding plant but has significant medicinal value. The text describes it as bitter (Tikta), light (Laghu), dry (Ruksha), and hot in potency. It is beneficial for hair health (Keshya), acts as an antidote to poisons, treats skin diseases and worm infestations. The leaves when rubbed give a dark blue-green color. The dye extract (Indican) is the main chemical constituent. The plant has been used traditionally for hair coloring and treating hair-related conditions. It also has anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties. Neeli is described as alleviating Kapha and Vata doshas. The dye content in leaves is about 0.5-0.5%. Verse refs: pages 406-407.
Introduction — Purpose of the Synonym Glossary
अनेकार्थनामवर्गः
The Anekarthanama Varga (chapter on words with multiple meanings) is a unique glossary section of the Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Its purpose is to address the widespread problem of polysemy in Ayurvedic nomenclature — the fact that a single Sanskrit drug name often refers to multiple different substances depending on context. This chapter is essential for correct identification and interpretation of drug names found across Ayurvedic literature. The introductory note explains that many synonyms used in various Nighantu texts refer to different drugs by the same name, and without this disambiguation guide, serious errors in drug identification could occur. Some terms even refer to substances in completely different categories (e.g., a plant, a mineral, and an animal product all sharing the same name). The chapter is divided by the number of meanings each term carries: Dvyarthaka (two meanings), Tryarthaka (three meanings), Chaturarthaka (four meanings), Pancharthaka (five meanings), and so on up to Bahvarthaka (many meanings). Verse reference: Introduction.
Iron
लोह
Ferrum (Fe)
Loha (Iron) is the most commonly used metal in Ayurvedic medicine. Three types are described: Munda, Tikshna, and Kanta Loha. Kanta Loha (magnetite iron) is considered the best. Loha Bhasma is the chief remedy for Pandu (anemia), Kamala (jaundice), Yakrit-Pliha Roga (liver-spleen disorders), Shotha (edema), and Prameha (diabetes). It is Rasayana and enhances strength, complexion, and vitality. Iron must be properly purified by quenching in various liquids (Nirvapa Shodhana) and then incinerated through Puta method. Improperly prepared Loha Bhasma can cause constipation, acidity, and liver damage. Verses: 25-35.
Iron Properties
लोह
Ferrum (Fe)
Further properties of Loha (Iron) — it is cooling, astringent, and destroys diseases of blood, liver, and spleen. Loh Bhasma prepared with Triphala is best. The text warns that improperly prepared Loha can cause 21 types of diseases. The Mandura (iron rust/slag) is also described as a separate preparation with similar but milder properties, particularly useful in anemia and liver disorders. Verses: 36-40.
Iron Pyrites
कासीस
Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4·7H2O) / Green Vitriol
Kasisa (Green Vitriol/Iron Sulphate) is a green crystalline mineral. Several types are described: Pushpa Kasisa (flower-like efflorescence — best), Dhatu Kasisa, and others. Kasisa Bhasma is used in eye diseases, anemia, worm infestations, and wound healing. It is a source of iron when properly processed. Externally used in eye preparations and wound dressings. Verses: 107-109.
Iron Slag
मण्डूर
Ferric oxide (Iron rust/slag)
Mandura (Iron slag) is the rust or oxidized residue of iron. It is considered an Upadhatu (sub-metal) of iron. Mandura Bhasma is one of the most important preparations for Pandu Roga (anemia) and Yakrit-Pliha Vikara (hepato-splenic disorders). It is lighter and easier to digest than Loha Bhasma. It is also useful in edema, skin diseases, and worm infestations. The text describes different qualities of Mandura and methods of its preparation. Verses: 40-42.
Ironweed
वीरतरु
Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A.
Veerataru (Dichrostachys cinerea) is described as a thorny shrub or small tree. It is found across the Indian subcontinent. The bark and root are used medicinally. It has astringent and binding properties useful in diarrhea and dysentery. The characteristic bicolored flowers (yellow and pink) distinguish this plant.
Ixora
रुक्मिणी
Ixora coccinea Linn.
Rukmini (Ixora coccinea) is a shrub with dense clusters of bright red or orange tubular flowers. It is commonly grown in Indian gardens. The flowers and roots are used medicinally. The root decoction is used in diarrhea and dysentery. The flowers have hemostatic properties. The plant is evergreen with opposite glossy leaves. Hibiscus species are sometimes confused with Ixora. Verse: referenced among flowering shrubs.
Jack Fruit
पनस
Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f.
Panasa (Jackfruit) is described here as a fruit with its edible and medicinal properties. The ripe fruit is sweet, heavy, unctuous and nourishing but difficult to digest. It increases Kapha. The seeds (Bija) are starchy and eaten cooked. The unripe fruit is used as a vegetable. The ripe fruit is Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Balya (strengthening). It should be eaten in moderation due to its heavy nature. The fruit causes flatulence in excess. Dose: As food. Verses: 5.
Jackfruit Tree
पनस
Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f.
Panasa (Jackfruit) is one of the largest tree-borne fruits in the world. The tree is an evergreen, found widely in Western and Southern India. The ripe fruit is sweet, heavy and nourishing but difficult to digest. The unripe fruit is used as a vegetable. The seeds are starchy and eaten boiled or roasted. The latex from the tree is used as a cement. The bark is used in diarrhea. The wood (Jackwood) is yellow and used for making furniture and musical instruments. The ripe fruit increases Kapha and is Guru (heavy), hence should be eaten in moderation. The tree can produce fruits weighing 10-40 kg. The latex contains tannins and is used medicinally. Dose: Fruit as food; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 5.
Jamunmahua
जमुनमधूक
Bassia longifolia Linn.
Bassia longifolia is the South Indian variety of Mahua found in forests of the South. The seeds yield Illipe butter, an important commercial product. Properties similar to Madhuka. Verse: 36.
Japa Pushpa
जपापुष्प
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.
Additional description of Gudhal (Hibiscus) flower varieties and their specific uses in hair care and Pitta disorders. The text notes various color varieties including red, white, pink and yellow, each with slightly different therapeutic emphasis. The red variety is most commonly used medicinally.
Jatropha
जपा एरण्ड
Jatropha curcas Linn.
Jatropha curcas (Jamalghota) is described as a wild castor-like plant. It is a large shrub whose seeds contain a powerful purgative oil. The seed oil is more drastic in its purgative action than castor oil and must be used very carefully. The plant has been used for severe constipation and abdominal disorders. The latex of the plant has wound-healing properties. The text warns about its strong and potentially irritating purgative effect.
Jarul
जारुल
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Retz.
Jarul (Crape Myrtle) is a large deciduous tree found in India, particularly in Bengal and the eastern regions. It grows up to 30-60 feet tall. The bark, leaves and fruits are used medicinally. The leaves contain compounds that have insulin-like activity and are used in diabetes management. The bark is astringent and used in diarrhea. The flowers are large, pink to purple and ornamental. The wood is durable and used in boat building. The leaves, bark and root are used in Prameha (diabetes). Modern research has identified the compound Lagerstroemin which has blood sugar-lowering properties. Dose: Leaf decoction 1-2 tola; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 42.
Jasmine
मालती
Jasminum sambac Ait.
Bela/Mogra (Jasminum sambac) is one of the most beloved fragrant flowers in India. It is an evergreen climbing shrub. The white, highly fragrant flowers bloom throughout warm months. The flowers are used in garlands, perfumery, and medicine. They are considered cooling and useful in skin diseases, eye disorders, and as an antidote. The flower oil is valuable in aromatherapy. The plant grows as a vine or shrub with glossy dark green leaves. It can grow 12-12.5 x 2-2.5 inches across. There are single and double-flowered varieties. The flowers are used in making attar (essential oil). Dose: 4-6 flowers; external application as paste. Verse: 24-26.
Chameli
चमेली
Jasminum grandiflorum Linn.
Additional properties of Chameli are described, specifically about the oil extracted from the flowers. Jasmine oil is used in skin diseases and as a complexion enhancer. The oil is extracted through enfleurage or solvent extraction. It is one of the most valued floral oils in perfumery. Verse: 24-26.
Jatamansi
जटामांसी
Nardostachys jatamansi DC.
Jatamansi (Spikenard) is the rhizome of Nardostachys jatamansi, found in the Himalayan alpine regions at 3000-5000 meters altitude. The rhizomes are covered with fibrous root remnants giving a hairy (jata) appearance. It is one of the most valued Medhya (brain tonic) drugs in Ayurveda with notable sedative and anxiolytic properties. The drug is aromatic with a distinctive musky smell. It is used for insomnia, anxiety, epilepsy, memory disorders, and as a hair tonic. It gives a dark color on boiling. It pacifies all three doshas and is used in conditions of both mental and physical debility.
Java Plum
जम्बू
Eugenia jambolana Lam.
Jambu (Java Plum/Jamun) is a large evergreen tree found throughout India. The fruit is purple-black when ripe with astringent-sweet taste. It is one of the most important fruits for diabetics in Ayurveda. The seed powder is extensively used in Prameha (diabetes) as it reduces blood sugar. The fruit stains the tongue purple. The bark is astringent and used in diarrhea, dysentery and menorrhagia. The vinegar from fruit is carminative. The seeds contain Jamboline, a glucoside with anti-diabetic action. The tree is large, providing excellent shade. The ripe fruit is eaten fresh. The bark decoction is used as a mouthwash. Various preparations of Jamun seed (Jamun Beej Churna) are popular anti-diabetic remedies. Dose: Fruit as food; seed powder 1-2 masha; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 20.
Jawaasa
दुरालभा
Alhagi camelorum Fisch.
Duraalbhaa / Jawaasa (Alhagi camelorum) is commonly known as Camel Thorn. It exudes a sweet manna-like substance from its branches in summer. The plant is thorny and grows in dry regions. It is described as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), burning sensations (Daha), fever (Jvara), thirst (Trishna), and urinary disorders. The sweet exudate contains about 18.9% invert sugar and Melizitose (47.1%). Small, 1-2 inch leaves with sharp thorns characterize the plant. The pods are like small beads. Verse refs: pages 411.
Jayapala
जयपालः
Croton tiglium Linn.
Jayapala (Croton tiglium) is a well-known drastic purgative. Its seeds yield Croton oil, which is extremely potent. The text describes it as causing strong purgation and warns of its sharp (Tikshna) nature. It is used in conditions of severe constipation, abdominal distension, and dropsy. The oil is extremely irritant externally and causes blistering on skin. Internally in 1-2 drop doses it causes violent purging. The text describes various processing methods (Shodhana) to reduce toxicity before use. Various alkaloids and fatty acids are described as chemical constituents. Verse refs: page 401.
Cumin
जीरक
Cuminum cyminum Linn.
Common culinary spice with strong digestive and absorbent properties. Especially useful in diarrhea and digestive disorders.
Gunja
गुंजा
Abrus precatorius Linn.
Gunja (Abrus precatorius) is a well-known twining plant with red and black seeds used as weights by goldsmiths (1 seed = 1 Ratti). The plant grows up to 2000 feet altitude. The leaves are compound with small leaflets. There are two varieties - red-seeded (Rakta Gunja) and white-seeded (Shveta Gunja). The white variety is considered more useful medicinally. The leaves taste sweet like liquorice as they contain Glycyrrhizin. The seeds contain the highly toxic protein Abrin which is similar to Ricin. Root contains Glycyrrhizin (9%) and is used as a substitute for liquorice. Externally the seed paste is applied on alopecia (Indralupta) and skin diseases. The leaves are used in cough, cold, and as a sweetener. CAUTION: Seeds are highly toxic if taken internally in large doses - they contain Abrin which is a potent toxalbumin. Dose: leaf juice 1-2 tola; root powder 3-5 ratti.
Jhau
माचिका
Tamarix gallica Linn.
Small tree/shrub near rivers and water bodies. Bark and galls (insect-produced growths) used. Galls more medicinally potent.
Jhinni
झिन्नी
Odina woodier Roxb.
Jhinni (Axle-wood) is a moderate-sized deciduous tree. Its bark is astringent and used in diarrhea and dysentery. The bark juice is used in wounds and ulcers. The gum from the tree is also medicinally useful. It is used in traditional medicine for digestive disorders and wound healing. Verse: 23.
Jivaniiya Gana
जीवनीयगण
The text describes the Jeevaniya (life-promoting) group of drugs which includes Jivanti, Mudgaparni, Mashaparni, and other herbs. This group is part of the Charaka Samhita classification of drugs by their primary action. These herbs are all sweet, cooling, nourishing, and promote vitality and longevity. They are commonly used in conditions of debility, wasting, and for general rejuvenation.
Jivanti
जीवन्ती
Leptadenia reticulata W. & A.
Jivanti (Leptadenia reticulata) is an important Jeevaniya (life-promoting) herb. It is a twining shrub found in forests across India. The plant is milky and exudes latex when cut. It is considered one of the best galactogogues (Stanyajanana) in Ayurveda, increasing breast milk production. The plant is sweet in taste with cooling potency, making it excellent for Pitta disorders. It is one of the Jeevaniya Gana drugs of Charaka Samhita. The leaves are used as a vegetable (Shakashreshtha -- best among vegetables).
Justicia
काला अडूसा
Justicia gendarussa Burm.
Kala Adusa (Justicia gendarussa) is a dark-stemmed variety of the Adusa plant. Unlike the white Vasaka which is Sheeta (cooling), this variety is Ushna (hot) in potency. It is primarily used for Vata disorders including joint pain and inflammation. The leaves are used externally as poultice for pain relief. It is considered useful in rheumatic conditions.
Justicia
वाटी पिप्पली
Justicia procumbens Linn.
Vati Pippali (Justicia procumbens) is a small herb described under the Parpata section. It resembles a small Pippali (long pepper) in appearance. It is used for cough and respiratory disorders. Several related species are also listed including J. diffusa Wild.
Justicia
रक्तपुष्प वासक
Justicia picta Linn.
Raktavasaka (Justicia picta) is described as a red-flowered variety of Vasaka. It is found growing in gardens and is 8-9 inches tall with reddish leaves. The text indicates it has similar properties to the white-flowered Vasaka (Adhatoda vasica) but is specifically noted as a variety. It is used for cough, bleeding disorders, and Kapha conditions.
Malkangani
ज्योतिष्मती
Celastrus paniculatus Willd.
Jyotishmati (Celastrus paniculatus), known as Malkangani, is a renowned Medhya (intellect-promoting) drug. It is a large woody climber found in forests across India. The seed oil is the main medicinal part and is used both internally and applied to the head for improving memory, intellect, and cognition. The name Jyotishmati means 'luminous' or 'brightening', referring to its ability to brighten the intellect. It is an important herb in Ayurvedic neuropsychiatry.
Kaali Nisoth
काली निसोत
The black variety of Nisoth/Turpeth used for drastic purgation. More potent than the white variety and requires careful dosing.
Kachnar
काञ्चनार
Bauhinia vahlii W. & A.
Kachnar / Kanchanara (Bauhinia vahlii) is a large climbing shrub found in hilly forests up to 3000 feet. It is described as astringent, light, dry, and cold in potency. Its primary indication is dissolving abnormal growths (Granthi) - it is the herb of choice for thyroid enlargement (goiter) and lymphadenopathy. Also useful in skin diseases, worm infestations, and blood impurities. The bark and flowers are used medicinally. The flowers are large and showy. Verse refs: page 436.
Kachnar
कांचनार
Bauhinia variegata Linn.
Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata), known as Mountain Ebony, is described as a medium-sized tree with characteristic twin-lobed leaves and beautiful orchid-like flowers. Multiple species are described: B. variegata (white/pink flowers), B. purpurea (purple flowers), and B. tomentosa (yellow flowers). The bark is the primary medicinal part used, particularly famous for treating Gandamala (cervical lymphadenitis/scrofula) and Granthi (glandular swellings including goiter). The flowers are edible and used as a vegetable. The bark decoction is astringent and used in diarrhea, dysentery, and skin diseases. It is one of the principal herbs in Kanchanara Guggulu, a classical formulation for thyroid disorders and tumors. The text describes its action as primarily Kapha-reducing and Granthihara (dissolving abnormal growths).
Kachur variety
कर्चूर
Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.
This is the detailed entry on Kachur/Karchura described in the Karpuradi Varga. The rhizome of Curcuma zedoaria is aromatic, camphoraceous, and widely used in Ayurvedic medicine. The text lists extensive synonyms and describes it as pungent and bitter with hot potency. It is one of the important drugs for respiratory and digestive disorders. The rhizome is used fresh or dried. When fresh, it resembles turmeric but is paler. The drug is an important ingredient in formulations for cough, asthma, flatulence, and intestinal worms. It is also used externally for skin conditions and wounds. The text describes its various names including Karpurakachri (camphor-like) reflecting its aromatic quality. Dose: 1-3 grams.
Kadali
कदली
Musa sapientum Linn.
Kadali (Banana/Plantain) is cultivated extensively throughout India. Multiple varieties exist with different medicinal properties. The ripe fruit is sweet, heavy, satisfying and difficult to digest in large quantities. The raw (unripe) banana is astringent and used in diarrhea and dysentery. The banana stem juice is a well-known remedy for kidney stones and urinary disorders. The flowers are used as a vegetable and in diabetes. The plant is rich in potassium and other minerals. There are two main species mentioned - Musa paradisiaca (cooking banana) and Musa sapientum (dessert banana). The leaves are used as plates and for wrapping food. Dose: Fruit as food; stem juice 1-2 tola. Verse: 7.
Kadamba
कदम्ब
Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.
Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba) is a large deciduous tree with globular, fragrant, orange-yellow ball-shaped flower heads. The tree is associated with Lord Krishna in Indian mythology. The bark yields 40-50 % tannins. The bark and flowers are used medicinally. The bark is a febrifuge. The flower heads are globular, 1-2 inches across, and highly aromatic. The tree grows rapidly and can reach considerable height. The bark is bitter and is used in malarial fever. The tree is also known for its beautiful appearance during the monsoon season. Verse: 16.
Kakajanghaa
काकजंघा
Leea hirta Roxb.
Kakajanghaa (Leea hirta) is described as a shrub with spreading leaves. The root is used medicinally. It is described as primarily useful as an anti-poison (Vishaghna) herb. The plant has compound leaves. It also helps in reducing swellings. Verse ref: page 442.
Kakamachi
काकमाची
Solanum nigrum Linn.
Kakamachi (Solanum nigrum) or Makoy is a common weed found up to 6000 feet elevation. The berries and whole plant are used medicinally. It is described as bitter, pungent, light, unctuous, with anushna (not excessively hot) potency. It is especially valued as a liver tonic (Yakritottejaka) and rejuvenative. The text notes it benefits the eyes (Chakshushya), voice (Svarya), treats fever, swellings, and skin diseases. The ripe berries are edible and nutritious. The plant contains Solanin (Solanine) alkaloid which can be toxic in large doses. This is an important hepatoprotective herb used in liver disorders including hepatitis and cirrhosis. Solanine content requires careful dosing. Verse refs: pages 438-439.
Kakanaja
काकनज
Not clearly specified (possibly Physalis species)
Kakanaja is described briefly as related to Kakamachi family. It is used in fevers and urinary disorders. Verse ref: page 439.
Kakanasa
काकनासा
Martynia diandra Glox.
Kakanasa (Martynia diandra) is originally from Mexico and has naturalized in India. It is found growing on thorny bushes and waste lands. The plant has claw-like fruits. The text describes it as pungent, sharp, and hot in potency. It is used for worm infestations and as an anti-venom. The juice of leaves is applied for scorpion stings. Verse ref: page 442.
Kakanjaghaa
काकजंघा
Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees
Peristrophe bicalyculata is described as a variety of Kakajanghaa. It is a small herb that is helpful in fevers and worm infestations. The plant grows as a small, spreading herb. Verse ref: page 441.
Kalihari
लाङ्गली
Gloriosa superba Linn.
Kalihari (Gloriosa superba), also known as Flame Lily or Glory Lily, is a highly potent medicinal plant whose tuberous root is the primary part used. It has strong purgative and emetic properties. The plant is described as a climber with beautiful flowers. Colchicine is its major alkaloid. It is used in gout, skin diseases, worm infestation, and as a uterine stimulant. Due to its extreme potency, the root must be purified (Shodhana) before internal use. Overdose can be fatal. The root is applied externally in paste form for skin diseases and joint pain.
Nigella
उपकुञ्चिका
Nigella sativa Linn.
Used in skin diseases and respiratory disorders. Seeds contain therapeutic volatile oils.
Kamala
काम्पिल्लक
Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Arg.
Important Krimighna drug for tapeworm. Red/orange glandular hair powder from fruits is used. Also used as natural dye.
Kamrakh
कमरख
Averrhoa carambola Linn.
Kamarakh (Star Fruit/Carambola) is a small tree found in many parts of India. The fruit is star-shaped in cross section, hence the English name. It is sour-sweet and juicy. The fruit is eaten fresh and used in cooking. It contains significant oxalic acid. The fruit is cooling and appetizing. Modern caution: it is contraindicated in kidney disease patients due to high oxalate content. Dose: As food. Verse: 56.
Kanchanar
कांचनार
Bauhinia variegata Linn.
Kanchanar (Bauhinia variegata) is a medium-sized deciduous tree with characteristic bilobed (butterfly-shaped) leaves. The flowers are large, orchid-like, pink to purple in color. The flower buds are eaten as a vegetable. The bark is the most important medicinal part, especially used for thyroid and lymphatic disorders (Gandamala/Galaganda). Kanchanar Guggulu is a famous Ayurvedic formulation. The tree flowers in February-April. Verse: referenced among tree flowers.
Kaniar
करवीर
Nerium indicum Mill.
Karavira (Nerium indicum/Oleander) is a well-known ornamental shrub with beautiful pink, red, or white flowers. However, all parts are highly toxic containing cardiac glycosides. The root, bark, leaves, and flowers are all poisonous. It is used cautiously in Ayurveda for skin diseases and as an external application. The root paste is applied on skin disorders and ringworm. White-flowered variety is considered less toxic. The plant is used in leprosy and other skin conditions in controlled doses. It must be used only under expert supervision due to its cardiac toxicity. Dose: 1 ratti root powder (with great caution). Verse: 45.
Kantakari
कण्टकारी
Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.
Kantakari (Solanum xanthocarpum), known as Chhoti Kateri, is a prominent member of the Laghu Panchamula and one of the most important herbs for respiratory conditions. It is a very prickly, diffuse herb found as a weed throughout India. The plant is covered with sharp thorns. The fruit is round and turns yellow when ripe (xanthocarpum = yellow fruit). It is especially valued for treating cough (Kasa) and asthma (Shwasa). Along with Brihati, it forms the pair 'Kantakari-dvaya'. The text describes it as having strong Kapha-dissolving properties, making it one of the best drugs for respiratory disorders. Its smoke is used for inhalation in asthma treatment.
Karamarda
करमर्द
Carissa carandas Linn.
Karamarda (Karonda) is a thorny shrub or small tree found throughout India, often used as hedging. The ripe fruit is dark purple-black and eaten fresh or pickled. The unripe fruit is used in pickles and chutneys. It is sour and astringent. The fruit is rich in iron and Vitamin C. It is used in digestive disorders and anemia. The root is bitter and used in skin diseases. The plant yields a white milky latex. Dose: As food. Verse: 27.
Karkatasringi
कर्कटश्रृंगी
Pistacia integerrima Stew. ex Brandis
The galls (insect-produced horn-like growths) on the leaves are the part used. Found at 1500-6000 feet in Himalayas. Important ingredient of many cough/asthma formulations for children.
Karnikara
कर्णिकार
Pterospermum acerifolium Willd.
Karnikara (Pterospermum acerifolium) is a large tree found in the Himalayan foothills at up to 5000 feet. It has very large leaves (up to 1 foot diameter) with silvery underside. The white fragrant flowers bloom at night. The leaves are used as natural plates for eating. The tree grows 8-12 feet or more. The flowers and bark are used medicinally. Dose: Various external applications. Verse: 28.
Karnikara
कर्णिकार
Cassia fistula Linn.
The Karnikara flowers of Cassia fistula are bright golden-yellow, hanging in long pendulous racemes. The tree is one of the most beautiful flowering trees in India. The flower properties include mild purgation and fever reduction. The fruit pulp is the main laxative part. Verse: referenced alongside other flowering trees.
Karunj
कटसरजा
Vitex trifolia Linn.
Vitex trifolia, the Three-leaved Chaste Tree, is described as a related species to the Five-leaved Nirgundi (V. negundo). It has similar but slightly milder properties. It is used for Vata disorders and inflammatory conditions. The text also references Alectra parasitica as another plant in the Nirgundi group.
Karunj
कोविदार
Bauhinia purpurea Linn.
Kovidara (Bauhinia purpurea) is described as a variety of Kachnar with purple flowers. It shares the Granthihara (gland-dissolving) properties of the white Kachnar. The bark is used for glandular swellings and goiter. Like B. variegata, the flowers are edible and the bark is medicinally valued.
Kasmari
काश्मरी
Gmelina arborea Linn.
Kashmarya (Gambhari) is one of the Dashamoola (ten roots) group, one of the most important drug formulations in Ayurveda. It is a large deciduous tree found throughout India. The root, fruit and bark are used medicinally. The root is one of the five components of Brihat Panchamoola. The fruit is sweet, nutritive and cooling, used in Trishna (thirst), Daha (burning sensation) and as a nutritive tonic. The root decoction is used in Vata disorders, fever, and debility. The wood is used in furniture. The tree grows fast and is commercially cultivated. Dose: Root decoction 1-2 tola; fruit as food. Verses mentioned.
Kayphala
कटफल
Myrica nagi Thumb.
Tree found in Himalayas. Bark is the part used. Important in ENT disorders — headache, sinusitis, rhinitis. Used as Nasya (nasal insufflation).
Kedara Yoga
केदारयोग
Celosia argentea Linn.
The text mentions Celosia argentea in context of aromatic and medicinal plants. It is an annual herb found throughout India. The seeds and whole plant are used medicinally. It has astringent taste with cooling potency. The plant is known for its silver-white flower spikes. It is used in bleeding disorders and as a hemostatic.
Khadira
खदिर
Acacia catechu Willd.
Khadira is one of the most valued trees in Ayurveda. It grows abundantly in forests throughout India. The heartwood extract known as Katha (Catechu) is extensively used medicinally and also in betel leaf preparations. The bark is rich in tannins. The heartwood is red and very hard. It yields the black extract used in skin diseases, oral diseases, and as a blood purifier. The Sara (heartwood) is particularly useful in Kushtha (skin diseases), Prameha (urinary disorders), and Shukra dosha (seminal disorders). The bark decoction is used for gargling in mouth diseases. Khadira is considered one of the best drugs for skin disorders in Ayurveda. The heartwood extract (Katha) contains about 25-30% Catechutannic acid. The wood is extremely durable and resistant to termites. Dose: Kwatha 5 to 10 tola; Katha 1-2 ratti. Verses: 50.
Kimsuka
किंशुक
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze
Palash flowers (Butea monosperma) bloom spectacularly in bright orange-red during spring (February-March). The flowers yield a natural dye used for Holi festival colors. The flower petals, bark, seeds and gum (Kamarkas) are all used medicinally. The seeds are the most potent anthelmintic. The flowers are used as a natural dye and in Pitta disorders. The tree is deciduous with trifoliate leaves. It is found throughout India. The gum (Palash ka gond/Kamarkas) is used as an astringent and tonic. Referenced in Pushpa Varga. Verse: 17.
Kinsuka
पलाशक्षार
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze
The gum (Kamarkas) of Palash tree is specifically described for its astringent and uterine tonic properties. It is widely used in postpartum care in traditional Indian households. The gum is soaked, made into a paste and given to new mothers to strengthen the uterus and back. It is also used in diarrhea and dysentery.
Knot Grass
कन्तिपर्णी
Polygonum aviculare Linn.
Knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare) is briefly mentioned in the text. It is an annual herb found in temperate regions. The whole plant is used. It has astringent taste with cooling potency. Used as an absorbent in diarrhea and dysentery. The plant grows close to the ground with small knotted stems.
Kohlya
कोशाम्र
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken
Koshamra is the fruit of the Kusum tree. The fruit is sweet and edible when ripe. The seed oil is used externally and in cooking. Verse mentioned.
Kokam Butter Tree
वृक्षाम्ल
Garcinia indica Chois.
Vrikshaamla (Kokam) is a slender evergreen tree found in the Western Ghats, particularly in Konkan region. The fruit rind is dried and used as a souring agent in Konkani cuisine. Kokam butter (extracted from seeds) is used in confections and skin care. The dried rind (Amsul) is used in cooking as a souring agent. Kokam juice (Kokam Sherbet) is a refreshing drink. Modern research has identified Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) in the fruit which has anti-obesity properties. The fruit is useful in digestive disorders, acidity and as a cooling agent. Dose: Dried rind in cooking; sherbet as desired. Verses: 60.
Kovidara
कोविदार
Bauhinia variegata Linn.
The specific flower properties of Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata) are described. The orchid-like flowers come in white, pink and purple varieties. The flower buds are extensively eaten as a vegetable. The flowers are astringent and used in glandular disorders. They are an important food source in many Indian communities. Verse: referenced in flower section.
Black Caraway
कृष्णजीरक
Carum carvi Linn.
Similar to white cumin but more aromatic. Contains Carvone. Used in digestive disorders.
Krishnasariva
कृष्णसारिवा
Ichnocarpus frutescens R. Br.
Krishnasariva (Ichnocarpus frutescens) is described as a dark-colored climbing vine. It should not be confused with the white Sariva (Hemidesmus indicus). It has sweet, bitter taste, is heavy, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is used for blood purification, reducing burning sensations, thirst, and fevers. The plant grows on trees and is found in forests. The vine has a milky latex. Verse refs: page 426.
Krupasariva
कृपासारिवा
Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult.
Krupasariva (Cryptolepis buchanani) is described as a variety of Sariva with darker stems. It climbs on trees and has similar blood-purifying properties. The leaves and roots are used. It is found widely across India. Verse ref: page 427.
Kubja
कुन्द
Jasminum multiflorum Andr.
Kund (Jasminum multiflorum) is described as having star-shaped white fragrant flowers. The plant is a climbing shrub. The flowers are used in worship and garland-making. Medicinally used for complexion and as an antidote. Verse: 27.
Kubjaka
कुब्जक
Jasminum pubescens Willd.
Kund (Jasminum pubescens) is a jasmine variety with downy (hairy) leaves and white fragrant flowers. It is found growing wild and in gardens. The flowers bloom at night. It is used for eye care and skin health. Verse: 27.
Kupaphasarini
पसारणी
Merremia tridentata Hall.
Kupaphasarini is a variety of creeper related to Prasarini. It is described as a trailing vine. Leptadenia spartium (another identification) is also mentioned. Used similarly to Prasarini for Vata disorders. Verse ref: page 425.
Kusha
कुश
Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv.; Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf
Kusha (Desmostachya bipinnata / Eragrostis cynosuroides) is the sacred grass used extensively in Hindu rituals. It grows commonly in dry areas. The root is the main medicinal part. It is sweet in taste and cooling in nature. It is especially valued as a Mutral (diuretic) and Ashmari-bhanjana (lithotriptic - breaks urinary stones). The small variety is a different species from the larger one. The roots when dried become hard and are 2 to 4 inches long. Rhizomes are sweet-smelling. The root decoction is given for urinary calculi, dysuria, and bleeding disorders. It is also an important ritual plant in Hindu ceremonies. Several related grass species are discussed including similar ritual grasses. Dose: root decoction 2-4 masha; 1-2 tola.
Kustha / Kuth / Costus Root
कुष्ठ
Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke
Highly aromatic root used since ancient times. Now protected. Extensively used in skin diseases and respiratory disorders.
Kusumba / Kusum / Safflower
कुसुम
Carthamus tinctorius Linn.
Seeds yield edible oil. Flowers used as a dye (substitute for saffron) and medicinally. Widely cultivated in India.
Kutaja
कुटज
Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.
Kutaja (Holarrhena antidysenterica), known as Kurchi or Conessi Bark, is the foremost anti-diarrheal herb in Ayurveda. The tree grows up to 7000 feet elevation. The bark and seeds are the primary parts used. The bark contains multiple alkaloids - Conessine, Kurchine, Kurchicine, and Holarrhenine - which together make up about 2-4% of the bark content. Conessine alone constitutes 2.4-2.5% in bark. The total alkaloids including Conessine are effective against amoebic dysentery - Conessine has been demonstrated effective even against Entamoeba histolytica. Kurchi bismuth iodide preparation yields 20% bismuth and 32.45% iodine, useful for chronic amoebic dysentery. The text provides extensive pharmacological detail: the seeds are non-toxic while the bark requires careful dosing. Kutajarista and Kutaja Ghana Vati are classical preparations. The bark decoction is the main remedy for Pravahika (dysentery) and Atisara (diarrhea). It also has antipyretic and blood-purifying actions.
Kutaja
कुटज
Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.
Among the most important drugs for diarrhea and dysentery. Kutaja Ghan Vati (Kutajarishta) is a classical formulation. Bark more commonly used than seeds.
Kutki
कुटकी
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.
One of the most important bitter drugs in Ayurveda. Prime hepatoprotective herb. Best Tikta Rasa drug for liver disorders and jaundice.
Laksha / Lac / Shellac
लाक्षा
Laccifer lacca (Kerr)
Resinous secretion of lac insect. Used for bone fractures (Asthi Bhagna) and as a hemostatic. Ingredient of Laksha Guggulu used for fracture healing.
Lakshmana
लक्ष्मणा
Ipomoea sepiaria Koen.
Lakshmana (identified as Ipomoea sepiaria) is a highly revered herb in Ayurveda for promoting fertility and conception (Garbhasthapana). The text mentions multiple possible identifications: Ipomoea sepiaria (Convolvulaceae), Atropa mandragora (Solanaceae), Smithia geminiflora (Leguminosae), and Biophytum sensitivum (Geraniaceae). The exact botanical identity remains debated. It is one of the Garbhasthapana (conception-promoting) drugs listed in classical texts. It is sweet in taste and nourishing in nature.
Lal Apamarga
रक्तापामार्ग
Achyranthes aspera var. rubrofusca
Lal Apamarga (Red Prickly-Chaff) is described as a red-stemmed variety of Apamarga. It has properties similar to the white variety but is considered somewhat stronger in action. The red variety (A. bidentata and A. rubrofusca) are noted. It is used similarly for hemorrhoids, digestive disorders, and worm infestations. Verse ref: page 416.
Land Snail
नखी
Helix aspera; Achatina fulica
Nakha-Nakhi refers to the operculum or shell parts of land snails. The text describes it as a fragrant substance used in dhupa (fumigation) preparations. It has sweet and salty taste with cooling potency. It is beneficial for eyes and hair. The operculum of snails, when burned, produces a characteristic smell and is used in incense and fumigation formulas in Ayurvedic practice. The substance is described as Snigdha (unctuous) and Sheeta (cold), pacifying Pitta and Vata. It is found in various regions of India. The text notes it has varied properties depending on the variety of snail.
Large Bakula
बकुल
Mimusops elengi Linn.
Bakula/Maulshiri (Mimusops elengi) is a large evergreen tree with glossy dark green leaves. The small star-shaped flowers are extremely fragrant and bloom at night. Even dried flowers retain their fragrance. The bark is astringent and used for dental health - the bark decoction is used as a gargle for bleeding gums and loose teeth. The flower essence is used in heart disease and headache. The tree produces small edible fruits. The timber is very hard. It is a popular avenue tree. The bark contains saponins and tannins. Verse: 24-25.
Large Nut Grass
नागरमुस्तक
Cyperus scariosus R. Br.
Nagar Motha is a larger variety of Cyperus, identified as Cyperus scariosus. The text distinguishes it from ordinary Motha (Cyperus rotundus). It is found near water bodies and the tubers are used medicinally. The properties are similar to Cyperus rotundus but the tubers are larger. It is aromatic and used in perfumery and incense preparations. The drug is cooling and useful in fever, digestive disorders, and excessive thirst. It shares the same family and many therapeutic applications with its smaller relative. Dose: 3-6 grams.
Large Spurge
दूर्वाक्षी
Euphorbia hirta Linn.
Badi Dudhi (Euphorbia hirta) is a common hairy herb found across India. It is used extensively for asthma and respiratory disorders. The whole plant exudes white milky latex. It is also used to increase breast milk production in lactating mothers. The plant grows erect up to 1-2 feet. Verse: 291-296.
Lead
नाग
Plumbum (Pb)
Naga (Lead) is the fifth metal. It is heavy, soft, and bluish-grey. Lead Bhasma is used in diabetes, obesity, urinary disorders, and worm infestations. It must be very carefully purified and processed as raw lead is highly toxic. The text warns about improper use causing severe diseases. Verses: 24-25.
Lead Compound — Sindura
सिन्दूर
Lead oxide (Pb3O4 — Red lead)
Sindura (Red Lead) is a compound of lead. It is used primarily externally in wound healing and skin diseases. Internal use requires extreme caution due to lead toxicity. It is also used as a cosmetic (vermilion). Verses: 149.
Lead Ore
सीसक
Galena (PbS — Lead sulphide)
Further description of lead ores and their processing. Galena (lead sulphide) is the primary ore of lead. Its processed form is used in wound healing and eye preparations. Must be carefully purified due to lead toxicity. Verses: 129.
Lead-based Eye Preparation
सौवीराञ्जन
Galena/Antimony sulphide (Sb2S3 / PbS)
Sauviranjana/Surma is a mineral preparation used as eye collyrium (Anjana). It is applied in the eyes to improve vision, treat eye diseases, and as a cosmetic. Various types of Anjana (collyrium) are described including Rasanjana, Pushpanjana, and Srotanjana. Verses: 146-148.
Lemon
जम्बीर
Citrus limon (Linn.)
Jambira (Lemon/Nimbu) is one of the most important citrus fruits, extensively cultivated across India. The fruit juice is sour and is a powerful appetizer and digestive. Lemon juice with warm water and honey is a classic morning health drink. It is rich in Vitamin C and prevents scurvy. The rind contains essential oil (Limonene) used in flavoring and aromatherapy. Lemon juice is used as a souring agent, preservative and in numerous home remedies. It is used in Chhardi (vomiting), Aruchi (anorexia), and digestive disorders. The fresh juice is applied on skin for acne and dark spots. Lemon pickle is a popular condiment. Chemical composition includes citric acid, ascorbic acid and essential oils. Dose: Juice 1-2 tola; as flavoring in food. Verses: 52.
Lemongrass
भूतृण
Cymbopogon jwarankusa Jones; C. jwarankusa Schult.
Bhutrina (Lemongrass) is described as an aromatic grass used in Ayurvedic medicine. The text identifies it as Cymbopogon jwarankusa, a grass found in various parts of India including the Himalayas, central India, and the Deccan. The plant grows 8-9 inches tall with jointed stems and aromatic leaves. The grass yields a fragrant essential oil. It is 23% ash with manganese present. The text describes it as a fever remedy (hence the species name jwarankusa, meaning 'fever-destroyer'). It is pungent and bitter with heating potency. Used in fevers, digestive disorders, and as a flavoring agent. Dose: 2-5 grams.
Bhutrina
भूतृण
Cymbopogon citratus DC.; Andropogon citratus DC.
Bhutrina (Cymbopogon citratus) is lemongrass, an important aromatic grass. It is the source of Indian Melissa oil (Lemon oil). The grass has a strong lemon fragrance due to the presence of Citral, the main constituent. Citral is a precursor to Vitamin A synthesis. The oil is used in perfumery, soap making, and as a flavoring. Medicinally, the decoction is used in fevers, colds, and digestive complaints. It has strong antimicrobial properties. The grass grows 4-6 feet tall. Cymbopogon jwarancusha (the antipyretic variety) is sometimes considered separately. Also related is C. citratus used for lemongrass oil production. Dose: leaf decoction 2-4 tola; oil 1-2 drops.
Lemongrass variety
रोहिष
Cymbopogon jwarankusa Schult.
Rohisha is described as another variety or synonym of the fever grass (Cymbopogon) mentioned in the Karpuradi Varga. The aromatic grass is found in tropical India and used for fevers and digestive ailments. The essential oil from the grass has antipyretic properties.
Lesser Cardamom
सूक्ष्मैला
Elettaria cardamomum Maton
Sukshma Ela (Lesser Cardamom) is one of the most prized spices and is called the 'Queen of Spices.' The dried capsular fruit of Elettaria cardamomum is used. It is aromatic, pleasant in taste, and cooling. It is an excellent mouth freshener, digestive, and cardiac tonic. It relieves nausea, vomiting, and excessive thirst. It is widely used in Ayurvedic formulations and cooking. The seeds contain volatile oil rich in Cineol.
Lime
निम्बूक
Citrus medica var. acida
Small lime varieties (Kagzi Nimbu) are described with properties similar to Jambira (Lemon) but more sour and with thinner rind. They are widely used in cooking, pickles and as a digestive aid. The juice is used in numerous home remedies. Dose: As condiment. Verses continued.
Liquid Storax
शिलारस
Liquidamber orientalis Miller
Shilaarasa (Liquid Storax) is a balsam obtained from Liquidamber orientalis. It is a semi-liquid, aromatic resin used in Ayurvedic formulations for respiratory conditions, parasitic infections, and pain management. It is also used as a fumigant and in perfumery. The drug possesses antiseptic and expectorant properties.
Lodhra
लोध्र
Symplocos racemosa Roxb.
Tree found throughout India. Bark is used. Important drug for gynecological disorders, especially Raktapradar (menorrhagia). Used in Ashokarishta and Lodhrasava. Also used cosmetically as face pack (Ubtan).
Symplocos
पठानी लोध्र
Symplocos crataegoides Buch. Ham.
Another variety of Lodhra. Smaller tree, different bark characteristics. Used similarly to main Lodhra. Contains Symplocine and tannins.
Lodhra Rasayana & Rasaut
रसौत
Method of preparation of Rasaut (Berberis extract): Bark of Daruharidra is soaked in water, boiled repeatedly, concentrated into a thick paste (Rasakriya). This concentrated extract has high Berberine content and is used as eye drops and for skin application.
Loranthus
बांदा
Loranthus longiflorus Desr.
This variety of Banda (Loranthus longiflorus) is found throughout India. It is a hemi-parasitic shrub growing on trees with thick bark. The plant has opposite, thick, leathery leaves with entire margins. Flowers are tubular, 2-4 inches long in clusters. It is used in fractures and bone disorders as a poultice. Its therapeutic uses include treating excessive menstrual bleeding and as a general tonic. Syn. Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh. (Loranthaceae). Dose: 3-6 grams.
Lotus Parts - Padma Kinjala and Karnika
पद्मकेसर
Nelumbium speciosum Willd.
The lotus stamens (Kesara) and receptacle (Karnika) are described separately for their specific medicinal properties. They are particularly used in female reproductive disorders including threatened miscarriage. The stamens are astringent and hemostatic. The receptacle (Karnika) is used in diarrhea and dysentery. They are cooling and pacify Pitta. Verses: 5-8.
Kamal Bija)
मृणाल
Nelumbium speciosum Willd.
Mrinala (lotus stem/rhizome) is extensively used as a vegetable and is nutritious. The lotus seeds (Kamal Gatta) are astringent and nourishing. Both are cooling and used in bleeding disorders. The lotus stem is fibrous and is a popular vegetable in Kashmir and other parts of India. The seeds are used in making makhana (puffed lotus seeds). These parts are described in verses 4-8 of the Pushpa Varga.
Love Flower
केतकी
Pandanus odoratissimus Roxb.
Ketaki (Pandanus odoratissimus) is a large shrub or small tree. The male flowers are highly fragrant and are the source of Kewda water used in perfumery and cooking. It grows 10-12 feet tall. The leaves are long (2-3 feet) with marginal spines and aerial prop roots. The flower spathes (Spadix) yield the aromatic fragrance. The plant has separate male and female plants. The fruit is a large compound structure resembling a pineapple. Kewda water (distillate) is used as a flavoring agent and in perfumery. The root is used in medicine. The leaves are used for thatching and making mats. The fragrant flowers are used in Pitta disorders and as a cardiac tonic. Dose: 5-10 x 3-4 tola. Verse: 12-13.
Luffa
कोशातकी
Luffa graveolens Roxb.
This is another variety of Devadali (Luffa graveolens) mentioned in the text. It has similar but somewhat milder purgative properties compared to L. echinata. The text notes that this species is less commonly used.
Mace
जातीपत्री
Myristica fragrans Houtt
Javitri (Mace) is the aril or seed covering (arillus) of the same fruit that yields Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). The properties are similar to Nutmeg but somewhat milder. It is particularly valued as a digestive and for respiratory conditions. Mace is used in various spice blends and medicinal preparations. Malabarica variety (Myristica malabarica) is mentioned as an adulterant.
Emetic Nut
मदनफल
Randia dumetorum Lam.
Most important emetic drug in Panchakarma therapy. Drug of choice for Vamana Karma (therapeutic emesis).
Arka
अर्क
Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br.
Arka (Calotropis procera), known as Madar or Aak, is a common wasteland shrub found abundantly across India. It grows up to 2000 feet altitude. The plant exudes a thick white milky latex when any part is broken. It has sharp, pungent, and bitter properties. Despite being considered somewhat toxic, it is a highly valued medicinal plant when used properly in processed form. The root bark is the most used part, especially in Arsha (hemorrhoids), skin diseases, and abdominal conditions. The latex (Arka Kshira) is used externally for skin conditions and joint pain. The dried latex is used as a substitute for Dover's powder. The flowers are used in cough and asthma. Two species are described: Calotropis procera (Shveta Arka -- white flowered) and Calotropis gigantea (Rakta Arka -- purple flowered), with the latter also known as 'Alarka'. Arka leaves are used in Swedana (sudation/fomentation therapy).
Maerua
मुरवी
Maerua arenaria Hook. f. & Th.
Maerua arenaria is a tree or shrub found in the Deccan region. Its leaves and bark are used for reducing swellings and pain. The text mentions it briefly. Verse ref: page 437.
Maha Shatavari
महाशतावरी
Asparagus sarmentosus Linn.; A. filicinus Bush. & Ham.
Maha Shatavari (Asparagus sarmentosus or A. filicinus) is described as a larger variety of Shatavari with bigger and more numerous tuberous roots. The roots are larger and thicker. It is used interchangeably with A. racemosus for the same purposes. Some scholars identify this as the superior variety for Rasayana purposes.
Mahadevel
महासहदेवी
Mahasahadevi is described as a larger variety of Sahadevi with similar properties but more potent action. It is used similarly in fevers and worm infestations.
Mahaneem
महानिम्ब
Melia azedarach Linn.
Mahaneem (Melia azedarach), also called Bakayan or Persian Lilac, is distinguished from the common Neem by its larger leaves and different fruit structure. The text notes that while the small Neem is Sheeta Virya (cold potency), Mahaneem is Ushna Virya (hot potency). It shares many properties with Neem including being bitter, anti-parasitic, and useful in skin diseases. However, it has a more pronounced purgative action. The fruits are used as beads for garlands (hence 'Bead Tree'). The bark contains the alkaloid Margosine which has anti-parasitic properties.
Mahaneem
महानिम्बक
Melia azedarach Linn.
Additional description of Mahaneem (Melia azedarach) preparations and uses. The text clarifies the distinction between Neem (Azadirachta indica) and Mahaneem (Melia azedarach). The Mahaneem fruit has 5 seeds compared to single-seeded Neem. Its bark and leaves are more purgative than common Neem.
Maharasna
महारास्ना
Various species
Anti-rheumatic and anti-inflammatory herbs used in Ayurvedic practice for Vata disorders.
Mahua
मधूक
Bassia latifolia Roxb.
Madhuka (Mahua) is a large deciduous tree found extensively in Central India. The flowers are the most important part - they are fleshy, sweet and fall in large quantities. They are collected, dried and eaten or fermented into country liquor (Mahua). The flowers are rich in sugars and are nutritive. Mahua butter (oil from seeds) is used in cooking, soap-making and as a substitute for ghee. The bark is used in fractures and as an astringent. The flowers are also used in making distilled spirit. The timber is hard and durable. The tree is of enormous economic importance to tribal communities. Chemical analysis shows 50-60% sugars in dried flowers. Dose: Flowers as food; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 35.
Mahua Flower
मधूक
Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel.
Madhuka/Mahua (Madhuca indica) is a large deciduous tree highly valued in tribal India. The fleshy sweet flowers are collected and eaten fresh, dried, or fermented into local liquor (Mahua). The flowers contain 45-50% sugar and are highly nutritious. They fall naturally and are collected from the ground. The tree yields an important oil (Mahua oil/Mahua butter) from its seeds. The flowers are used as a tonic and aphrodisiac. The tree grows to considerable height with spreading crown. The bark is also astringent and used medicinally. It is an important source of livelihood for many tribal communities. Verse: mentioned in Pushpa Varga.
Maidenhair Fern
मयूरशिखा
Actinopteris dichotoma Bedd.
Mayurshikha (Actinopteris dichotoma) is found at rocky locations at up to 4000 feet. Its fronds are fan-shaped resembling a peacock's tail. It is used in bleeding disorders and urinary complaints. The fern grows on rocks and old walls. Dose: Swarasa 1-2.5 tola. Verse: 289.
Makaphalika
स्वर्णपत्री
Cassia angustifolia Vahl
Senna (Cassia angustifolia) is described as an important purgative herb. It is known as Svaranpatri and Sanay in Indian medicine. The leaves and pods are the medicinal parts. It produces reliable purgation and is widely used for constipation. The text mentions it grows well in Rajasthan and Southern India. Alexandrian Senna (C. acutifolia Delile) and Italian Senna (C. obovata) are also mentioned as related species. It is listed in British Pharmacopoeia. The leaves contain sennosides as the primary active components. Verse: 276-278. The decoction is made with 6-10 leaves steeped overnight for purgation. Dose: 1-2 tola leaves for decoction.
Malabar Catmint
चोपचीनी
Anisomeles malabarica R. Br.
Malabar Catmint (Anisomeles malabarica) is described in the text as a medicinal herb found in southern India. The plant is aromatic with hairy stems and leaves. It grows 4-6 feet tall. The essential oil has a strong aromatic odor. It is used in fever, cough, and digestive disorders. The drug is heating and pungent.
Vasaka
वासक
Adhatoda vasica Nees.
Vasaka (Adhatoda vasica), commonly known as Adusa or Malabar Nut, is one of the most important herbs for respiratory disorders in Ayurveda. The text describes it as a plant growing up to 7000 feet elevation. The leaves, flowers, and root bark are medicinally used. Vasicine is the primary alkaloid, found in leaves at about 1% concentration. The herb is the drug of choice for Kasa (cough), Shwasa (asthma), and Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). Its Sheeta Virya (cold potency) makes it effective in Pitta conditions. The text also mentions its use in Jwara (fever), Kamala (jaundice), and Prameha (urinary disorders). The leaves are used for making Svarasa (fresh juice), Kwatha (decoction), and various other preparations. It is also known to be a potent bronchodilator.
Malatee
मालती
Aganosma dichotoma K. Schum.
Malati is described as a climbing shrub with fragrant white flowers. It is used as an antidote and in worm infestations. The flowers are sweetly scented and bloom in clusters. It is found across peninsular India. Verse: referenced in the malati section.
Mallika
मल्लिका
Jasminum sambac Ait.
Mallika is described as a specific cultivar of Jasminum sambac, distinct from the other jasmine varieties. The name 'Mallika' specifically refers to the semi-double or single-flowered Arabian jasmine. Used for similar purposes as other jasmines. Verse: 24-26.
Manchil -- Coral/Manchil
गठिवन
Ochrocarpus longifolius Benth. & Hook. f.
The text discusses Ochrocarpus longifolius as a related species to Nagakeshara. This is a large tree found in the Western Ghats. The flowers are used medicinally. The text clarifies that while it is sometimes used as a substitute for Mesua ferrea (true Nagakeshara), it is botanically distinct. The flowers are yellowish-white and fragrant. It has similar cooling and absorbent properties. Used in bleeding disorders and diarrhea.
Mango
आम्र
Mangifera indica Linn.
Amra (Mango) is the king of fruits in India. The tree is evergreen and large, found throughout India. The ripe fruit is sweet, heavy, nourishing and aphrodisiac. It increases Kapha and is Guru (heavy to digest). The unripe (raw) mango is sour, astringent and aggravates Vata and Pitta. Different varieties of mango have slightly different properties. The ripe fruit is used for making Rasayana preparations, shakes and pickles. The kernel (seed) is astringent and used in diarrhea and dysentery. The bark decoction is used in diarrhea and as a gargle. Mango leaf decoction is used in diabetes. Aam Panna (raw mango drink) prevents heat stroke. The ripe fruit alleviates Vata and is nutritive. The Sahakara variety (grafted mango) is considered superior. Mango flowers are used in cough and respiratory disorders. Dose: Fruit as food; kernel powder 1-2 masha. Verses: 1-8.
Mango properties of unripe fruit
आम्र फल
Mangifera indica Linn.
The unripe (green/raw) mango has very different properties from the ripe fruit. It is sour, astringent and increases Pitta when consumed excessively. However, when taken properly with salt, it improves appetite and digestion. The raw mango is made into Panna (a refreshing summer drink), pickles and chutneys. It prevents heat stroke and is cooling when taken with sugar and water. The unripe mango aggravates blood disorders and Pitta when eaten in excess. It should be consumed with caution by Pitta constitution individuals. Verses: 2-5.
Mango-bark related
तरुणी
Ficus species (various)
Various supplementary descriptions of tree barks and their astringent properties used in combination therapies, particularly in the Panchavalkala group of five barks. These are used together in decoctions for wound washing, uterine disorders and other conditions requiring astringent action.
Manjishtha
मञ्जिष्ठा
Rubia cordifolia Linn.
The prime Raktashodhaka (blood purifier) drug in Ayurveda. The root is used — it yields a red dye. Found throughout India as a climbing plant. Used extensively in skin diseases, menstrual disorders, and as a complexion enhancer. Ingredient of Mahamanjishthadi Kwatha.
Maricha
मरिच
Piper nigrum Linn.
Maricha is one of the most commonly used spices. Ingredient of Trikatu. Enhances bioavailability of other herbs and medicines. A perennial climbing vine native to South India (Malabar coast).
Marigold
स्थौनेय
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt
Referenced in the flower section as a plant whose flowers have medicinal value. The fruit is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is known for its anti-diabetic properties.
Marking Nut
भल्लातक
Semecarpus anacardium Linn.
Bhallataka (Marking Nut) is described as both a poison and a medicine. The fruit/nut of Semecarpus anacardium contains a highly caustic black oil (Bhilawa oil) that causes severe blistering. After proper Shodhana (purification through brick powder rubbing and processing with lime water), it becomes a powerful Rasayana. Purified Bhallataka is used in piles, skin diseases (especially leprosy), digestive disorders, and as a rejuvenative. The oil causes severe contact dermatitis in unpurified form. It is contraindicated in Pitta constitution and summer season. Verses: 171-178.
Mashaparni
माषपर्णी
Teramnus labialis Spreng.
Mashaparni (Teramnus labialis) is a twining herb whose leaves resemble those of Masha (black gram). It is found in fields and open areas across India. Along with Mudgaparni, it is considered an important Jeevaniya drug. Its properties are sweet, heavy, and cooling -- making it nourishing and strength-promoting. It is used in fever management and as a general tonic.
Teramnus
माषपर्णी
Teramnus labialis Spreng.
Additional notes on Mashaparni describing its morphological similarity to Masha (black gram) and its habitat preferences. The plant is a twining herb found in open grasslands.
Medium Spurge
नागजिह्विका
Euphorbia microphylla Heyne
Another variety of small Dudhi (Euphorbia microphylla) mentioned as having similar properties to E. thymifolia but smaller in size. Used in similar conditions - diarrhea and wounds.
Mercury
पारद
Hydrargyrum (Hg) / Mercury
Parada (Mercury) is considered Rasaraj — the king of all minerals in Rasa Shastra. It is said to be born of Shiva's essence. Mercury is described as having all six tastes and the ability to pacify all three doshas. When properly processed (through 18 Samskaras), it becomes the most powerful Rasayana. Mercury combined with Sulphur (Gandhaka) forms Kajjali, the base of numerous Rasa preparations. Raw mercury is highly toxic and must never be used internally without proper purification. The text describes various forms of mercury and their applications. It is indicated in virtually all chronic diseases when used in properly prepared compound formulations. Verses: 49-53.
Mercury Properties
पारद
Hydrargyrum (Hg)
The text elaborates further on mercury's properties and contraindications. Impure or improperly processed mercury causes severe diseases — skin diseases, mental disorders, loss of strength, and even death. The 8 great Doshas (defects) of mercury and their remedies are described. Mercury should always be used in compound formulations, never alone. Its Shodhana (purification) involves grinding with specific herbs and substances. Verses: 54-57.
Meshashringi
मेषश्रृंगी
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.
This is the detailed verse entry for Meshashringi describing its anti-diabetic properties. The text notes it destroys sweetness (Madhura-nashaka) and is especially indicated in Prameha (urinary disorders) and Madhumeha (diabetes). The leaves when eaten completely suppress sweet taste perception for some time, confirming identity. Verse refs: pages 443-444.
Methika / Methi / Fenugreek
मेथिका
Trigonella foenumgraecum Linn.
Seeds widely used as spice and vegetable. Modern research confirms hypoglycemic properties. Seeds soaked and consumed for diabetes management.
Mica
अभ्रक
Mica (complex aluminium silicate)
Abhrak (Mica) is one of the most important minerals in Rasa Shastra. Four types are described based on color: Shveta (white), Rakta (red), Peeta (yellow), and Krishna (black). Krishna Abhrak is considered the best. Abhrak Bhasma is prepared through extensive Puta processes (up to 1000 Putas for Sahasraputi Abhrak Bhasma). It is a supreme Rasayana used in tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, chronic fevers, diabetes, anemia, and general debility. Higher quality Bhasma (more Putas) is more effective and safer. It is considered the 'Amrita' among minerals. Verses: 94-100.
Neem Chameli
आकाश नीम
Millingtonia hortensis Linn.
Millingtonia hortensis, known as Akash Neem or Neem Chameli, is described as having neem-like leaves and jasmine-like fragrant white flowers. The bark is used medicinally as a febrifuge. It is a tall tree used both ornamentally and medicinally.
Mistletoe
बांदा
Viscum album Linn.
Banda (Viscum album) is a parasitic plant that grows on trees. It is found in the Himalayan region at altitudes of 3000-9000 feet. Its synonyms in Hindi are Banda and Bandha. The plant is described as growing on various host trees. It is used in bleeding disorders, fractures, and as a uterine tonic. It is semi-parasitic, absorbing nutrients from the host tree. The leaves and branches are used medicinally. Different varieties grow on different trees, and the properties may vary depending on the host tree. Dose: 1-2 tola.
Mocharasa
मोचरस
Bombax malabaricum DC.
Mocharasa is the gum exudate of the Silk Cotton tree (Shalmali). It is described separately due to its specific therapeutic importance. The gum is obtained by making incisions in the bark. It is yellowish-brown, astringent and demulcent. It is one of the best drugs for Atisara (diarrhea), Pravahika (dysentery), and Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). It is also Vrishya and used in seminal debility. The gum dissolves in water and forms a mucilaginous solution. Dose: 1-2 masha. Verses: 29.
Mollugo
पर्पटक
Mollugo stricta Linn.
Parpataka (Mollugo stricta) is another plant identified as Parpata in some regions. It is an annual herb found in fields during the rainy season. It grows 8-10 inches tall and has small white flowers. It is used as a cooling agent and febrifuge in Pitta disorders.
Monkey Jack
लकुच
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.
Lakucha (Monkey Jack) is a medium to large tree related to Jackfruit. The tree grows up to 20 feet and the fruit is much smaller than Jackfruit. The fruit is sour-astringent. The bark contains tannin and is used in skin diseases. The heartwood extract is a potent anthelmintic, particularly against tapeworm. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 6.
Monkey Pod
अन्युजीव
Wendlandia exerta DC.
Another reference to Wendlandia species in the flower section. The plant is described for its astringent properties. The bark and flowers are used similarly. Verse: 49.
Morning Glory
शंखपुष्पी
Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois.
Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) is one of the most important Medhya (intellect-promoting) herbs in Ayurveda. It is a prostrate spreading herb found in dry regions. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is described with white, conch-shaped flowers, hence the name. Its primary action is on the brain and nervous system, improving memory, concentration, and cognitive functions. It is used in anxiety, insomnia, epilepsy, and mental fatigue. The plant has a calming effect on the mind and promotes sound sleep (Nidra). It is also used in hypertension. The herb has 4-12 inches spreading stems with small white or pale blue flowers. Leaves are linear. Dose: Swarasa 4-12 tola; Churna 1-2.5 tola. Verse: 269-270.
Mudgaparni
मुद्गपर्णी
Phaseolus trilobus Ait.
Mudgaparni (Phaseolus trilobus) is a creeping herb whose leaves resemble those of Mudga (green gram). It is found in fields and forests during the rainy season. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is a Jeevaniya drug that acts as a cooling, nourishing, and fever-relieving agent. Along with Mashaparni, it completes the Dashamula group as part of the Laghu Panchamula substitutes in some traditions.
Phaseolus
मुद्गपर्णी
Phaseolus trilobus Ait.
Additional description of Mudgaparni providing details about its seasonal availability, habitat, and distinguishing features from the commonly used Mudga (Phaseolus mungo/green gram).
Mulberry
तूत
Morus indica Griff.
Tut (Mulberry/Shahtoot) is a moderate-sized tree cultivated for silk production (the leaves feed silkworms). The fruit is sweet-sour, dark red to black when ripe. It is cooling and blood-building. The fruit stains the mouth and fingers. The leaves are the primary food source for the silkworm (Bombyx mori). The bark and root have astringent properties. The fruit juice is used in sore throat and mouth ulcers. Dose: Fruit as food. Verse: 38.
Munja
मुञ्ज
Saccharum munja Roxb.
Munja (Saccharum munja) is a tall grass growing near riverbanks and moist areas. It grows to 12 feet height or more. It has long leaves and tall flower stalks. The roots are sweet and cooling. Used as a diuretic and coolant. The sacred thread (Yajnopavita) is traditionally made from its fibers. The root decoction is given in urinary disorders. Related to sugarcane family. Dose: root decoction 2-4 tola.
Munji
भ्रामरी
Not clearly specified
Bhramari/Munji is described as a plant beneficial for hair and as a rejuvenative. The name Bhramari suggests an association with bees (Bhramar = bee). It is described in the context of hair-promoting herbs. Verse ref: page 429.
Mura
मुरा
Selinum tenuifolium Wall.
This is the larger variety of Mura identified as Angelica glauca, found in the Himalayan region at 6000-12000 feet altitude. The text distinguishes it from the smaller variety. The roots are 4-6 inches long. It is aromatic and used in traditional medicine for digestive disorders, worm infestations, and as an antidote. The plant belongs to the carrot family (Umbelliferae). It should not be confused with Jatamansi, although they grow in similar habitats.
Murva
मूर्वा
Marsdenia tenacissima W. & A.
Murva (Marsdenia tenacissima) is a woody climber that yields strong fiber used for bowstrings. The bark fiber is extremely tough. The root and bark are used medicinally. It is described as bitter, astringent, heavy, dry, and cold in potency. It is useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), burning sensations, fevers, and thirst. The plant has a milky latex. The fiber from bark is used traditionally for making bowstrings and ropes. Contains Asclepiadin and Vincetoxin alkaloids. Also has emetic properties. Dose: powder 3-5 rattis. Verse refs: pages 433.
Murva variety
मूर्वा
Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult.
Sansevieria roxburghiana is described as another variety of Murva. It also yields strong fibers used for making ropes and bowstrings. Similar medicinal properties to the primary Murva. Verse ref: page 433.
Musali / Shakakanda / Tapioca-like Yam
शाकाकन्द
Shakakanda is a tuberous root vegetable mentioned alongside Vidari varieties. It is used as a nutritive food and mild tonic.
Musk
कस्तूरी
Moschus moschiferus (animal origin)
Kasturi (Musk) is an animal-origin aromatic substance obtained from the preputial gland of the male musk deer (Moschus moschiferus, Fam. Cervidae). The deer is found in high Himalayan regions (4000-6000 feet elevation). Musk is one of the most expensive natural aromatics. It is a powerful cardiac stimulant, nervine tonic, and aphrodisiac. Used in heart diseases, epilepsy, psychosis, and as an antidote. Three types of Kasturi described: from deer, from plants, and artificial. The musk pod (Kasturi ki nafi) is found near the navel of the male deer. Rutting season yields the best quality musk. Identification tests include burning (genuine musk gives no residue), rubbing, and dissolution tests. Various animal sources of musk-like substances are also mentioned including civet cat, muskrat, and others. Chemical analysis reveals muscone as the primary odorant. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 5-8.
Musk Mallow
लताकस्तूरी
Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn.
Lata Kasturi (Hibiscus abelmoschus, Fam. Malvaceae) is a plant-based musk substitute. Its seeds have a strong musk-like fragrance. The plant is an annual/biennial herb found across India. Seeds (Mushkadana) are the officinal part, yielding a musk-scented fixed oil. Used as a cooling, aromatic medicine for heart conditions and burning sensations. It is considered a plant equivalent of animal Kasturi. Also used in perfumery. Shloka reference: Karpuradi Varga.
Musk Rose
कुन्ज
Rosa moschata Herrm.
Kunja (Rosa moschata) is found in mountainous regions of Western India. It is a climbing rose with clusters of fragrant white flowers. The flower fragrance is musky, hence the name. It grows well at higher altitudes in the Himalayan region (22 feet or more). Its petals are used in similar ways to other roses. Verse: 14-15.
Muskmelon
वृत्तकर्बुज
Cucumis melo Linn.
Kharbuja (Muskmelon) is a popular summer fruit with sweet fragrant flesh. It is cooling, thirst-quenching and diuretic. However, it is heavy to digest and can aggravate Kapha in excess. The seeds are cooling, diuretic and demulcent. Muskmelon should be eaten in moderation by those with weak digestion. Dose: As food. Verse: 11.
Musli
काली मूसली
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
Kali Musli (Curculigo orchioides) is valued as a Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Rasayana drug. The rhizome is the main part used. It grows from underground rhizomes with elongated leaves. The plant produces yellow flowers close to the ground. The rhizome is black externally and white internally. It is traditionally used in sexual debility, general weakness, and as a rejuvenative tonic. The related species Asparagus adscendens (Safed Musli) and Chlorophytum arundinaceum (Safed Musli) are also used as Musli. The fresh rhizome is sticky and mucilaginous. Dose: powder 2-4 masha.
Myrrh
बोल
Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.
Bola (Myrrh) is a gum-resin obtained from Commiphora species. It has been used since ancient times as an aromatic, disinfectant, and wound-healing agent. In Ayurveda, it is valued for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and blood-purifying properties. It is used in disorders of oral cavity, skin diseases, and as an ingredient in various formulations for musculoskeletal pain.
Naagapushpi
नागपुष्पी
Not specified separately
This is an additional sub-variety or note on Naagapushpi, described in the same context. Verse ref: page 443.
Nagabala
नागबला
Sida veronicaefolia Lam.; Syn-Sida humilis Cav.
Nagabala (Sida veronicaefolia or Sida humilis) is another Bala variety considered to have Balya (strengthening) and Vatahara properties. It is used interchangeably with other Sida species for similar purposes. The plant has properties between Bala and Atibala. Dose: similar to Bala.
Nagadanti
नागदन्ती
Croton oblongifolius Roxb.
Nagadanti is a variety of Croton described as having similar but somewhat milder purgative properties compared to Jayapala. The plant grows mainly in hilly regions. Its small, round fruits and seeds are used medicinally. It is useful in Vata and Kapha disorders, abdominal diseases, and as a purgative. The text mentions it has purgative properties comparable to Danti but less drastic than Jayapala. Doses are slightly higher than those for Jayapala given its milder potency. Verse refs: page 402.
Nagakesara
नागकेसर
Mesua ferrea Linn.
Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea) flower stamens are one of the most valued flower-medicines in Ayurveda. The golden stamens from the white flowers are dried and used medicinally. They have excellent hemostatic and absorbent properties. Used in bleeding piles, dysentery, and excessive menstrual bleeding. The dried stamens are sold commercially. They have a pleasant fragrance. The tree produces hard timber. The stamens are an ingredient in many classical formulations. Verse: 15, 45.
Nagapushpi
नागपुष्पी
Vitex peduncularis Wall.
Nagapushpi (Vitex peduncularis) is a small tree found in hilly areas. The leaves and bark are used medicinally. It grows to about 20 feet with 25 foot canopy. Its leaves and bark have fever-reducing and anti-inflammatory properties. Also mentioned is V. leucoxylon as a variety. Verse refs: pages 442-443.
Nagaranga
नागरङ्ग
Citrus sinensis Osbeck
Nagaranga (Orange) is briefly mentioned in the text in the context of aromatic fruits and substances. The citrus fruit is known for its refreshing taste and aroma. The rind contains essential oil used in perfumery and aromatics.
Nagarmotha
भद्रमुस्ता
Cyperus rotundus Linn.
Musta (Nagarmotha) is the rhizome/tuber of Cyperus rotundus, a common grass found throughout India. It is one of the most important digestive drugs in Ayurveda, considered the best among Dipana-Pachana (appetizer-digestive) drugs. The tubers are aromatic and bitter. It is widely used in diarrhea, fever, digestive disorders, and as a lactation purifier. It pacifies Kapha and Pitta doshas.
Nagarmotha
गोक्षुर
Tribulus alatus Del.
The text describes Tribulus alatus (Winged Caltrops) as a related species of Gokshura. It has similar properties to Tribulus terrestris but with slightly different morphological features. It is found in drier regions and used as a substitute.
Grewia
नागबला
Grewia hirsuta Vanb.
Nagabala 3 (Grewia hirsuta) is a shrub identified by some as the true Nagabala. The stem bark is fibrous and mucilaginous. The plant grows 11-12 feet tall. The leaves are 5-6 inches long, hairy. The bark and roots are used medicinally as Balya and Vatahara. Related species include Grewia populifolia (Gangeti). The identification debate between Sida species and Grewia species as 'Nagabala' is discussed. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola; root powder 2-4 masha.
Nagdamani
नागदमनी
Artemisia vulgaris Linn.
Nagdamani (Artemisia vulgaris) is found in the Himalayan region. It has aromatic silvery-green leaves. The plant is used as an anthelmintic and digestive stimulant. The whole herb is aromatic and bitter. Used in malarial fevers in some traditional systems.
Nakuli
नकुली
Rauwolfia serpentina Benth.
Nakuli is mentioned in the text in relation to snake-repelling and antitoxic herbs. The commentary discusses that this may be Rauwolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha), one of the most important medicinal plants globally. The plant is famous for its roots that yield Reserpine, an alkaloid used in modern medicine for hypertension. In Ayurveda, it is used for snake bites, insomnia, and anxiety. The roots are bitter with heating potency.
Nakuli / Ishwarmool / Indian Birthwort
नाकुली
Aristolochia indica Linn.
Root used. Famous anti-venom for snake bites (applied externally and given internally). Named 'Nakuli' after mongoose which is believed to use this plant after snake bites.
Needle Flower
नवमल्लिका
Jasminum sambac Ait.
This entry describes the Navamallika variety of Jasmine, which is the double-petaled Mogra. The fragrant white flowers are used extensively in garlands and perfumery. The flower properties are similar to the single-petaled variety but with stronger aroma. Referenced as a separate variety in the Pushpa Varga.
Neel
नील
Indigofera tinctoria Linn.
Neel is a sub-entry under the same Neeli herb. The text gives additional synonyms and notes that this is the same Indigo plant used primarily as a hair dye and in poisoning treatment. Verse ref: page 407.
Neem
निम्ब
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Neem (Azadirachta indica) is one of the most extensively described herbs in this text. Called Nimba in Sanskrit, it is revered as a 'village pharmacy' in India. Every part - leaves, bark, flowers, fruit, seed, root - is medicinally useful. The tree grows 40-50 feet tall and is found throughout India. The bitter taste pervades all parts. It is the premier herb for skin diseases (Kushtha), blood impurities, and parasitic infections. The seed oil (Neem oil) contains numerous bioactive compounds including Nimbidin, Nimbin, and Nimbinin. The text describes its extensive use in Jwara (fever), Prameha (diabetes), Kushtha (skin diseases), Krimi (worms), and Vrana (wounds). Neem bark is also used in malarial fevers. Margosate (derived from Neem oil) has been identified as a potent antimicrobial. The text provides detailed chemical analysis including fatty acid composition of the seed oil.
Neem Tree
निम्ब
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Nimba (Neem) is one of the most versatile medicinal trees in Ayurveda and is found throughout India. Every part of the tree - leaves, bark, flowers, fruits, seeds, gum and root - has medicinal value. The tree is extremely bitter (Tikta) and is considered the best drug for skin diseases (Kushtha). It is antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral and antiparasitic. The leaf juice is used in skin diseases, fever and diabetes. The bark decoction is antimalarial and antipyretic. Neem oil from seeds is used externally in skin diseases and as an insecticide. The tender twigs are used as toothbrushes (Datuna). The flowers are used in cooking and as medicine. Neem is the foremost drug in Kushtha chikitsa (treatment of skin diseases). The tree is also important in agriculture as a natural pesticide. Chemical analysis reveals multiple active compounds including Nimbin, Azadirachtin, and various limonoids. Dose: Leaf juice 1-2 tola; bark decoction 1-2 tola; oil externally. Multiple verses.
Night Jasmine
पारिजात
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.
Parijata (Night Jasmine) is a small tree (8-10 feet) with fragrant white flowers with orange tubes that bloom at night and fall in the morning. The orange tubes of the flowers yield a natural dye. The leaves are rough textured. It is an important antipyretic herb - the leaf decoction is widely used for malarial and other fevers. It is described as having remarkable febrifuge properties. The tree flowers profusely, carpeting the ground with fallen flowers each morning. It is one of the most popular medicinal trees in Indian gardens. The leaves decoction is given in sciatica (gridhrasi). Note: Erythrina indica was called Parijata by some scholars. Chunekar clarifies this is the true Parijata. Verse: 9-10.
Harsingar
पारिजात
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.
Harsingar (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis), the Night Jasmine or Tree of Sorrow, is named so because its fragrant flowers bloom at night and fall by morning. The leaves contain Nyctanthine which has anti-malarial and anti-parasitic properties. The text describes it as a small tree with rough bark. The orange tube of the flower yields a yellow dye used in religious ceremonies. The leaf extract containing Santinin has demonstrated effectiveness against intestinal worms. The leaves are traditionally used as a decoction for fevers, especially chronic and malarial fevers, and for sciatica. The flowers are aromatic and used in perfumery.
Night Lotus
कुमुद
Nymphaea alba Linn.
Kumuda (White Water Lily, Nymphaea alba) is described as a night-blooming water flower. It opens at night and closes during the day. The flower, root, and stem are used medicinally. The root (rhizome) is very starchy and nutritious. It is described as cooling, heart-tonic and useful as a sedative. The flowers are white. It is found in ponds and lakes across India. Different species are mentioned: (1) Nymphaea rubra Roxb. with red flowers, (2) N. pubescens Willd. which is similar to N. alba but with some distinct features, (3) N. stellata Willd. with blue flowers. All species are described with 2-4 feet diameter leaves floating on water. The rhizome yields starch. Verse: 9.
Nimbuka Kashaya
अम्लफल
Various sour fruits
General properties of sour fruits (Amla Phala) described as a group. Sour fruits generally increase Pitta and Kapha, improve appetite, and are digestive. They should be used with caution in Pitta disorders. Excessively sour fruits can cause dental erosion, Raktapitta and skin disorders. The general rule is that moderately sour fruits are best. Verses: General description.
Nimbuka varieties
निम्बूक
Citrus species (various)
Description of various citrus (Nimbu) varieties including Kagzi Nimbu, Bijora Nimbu, Galgal (Hill Lemon), and others. Each variety has slightly different properties but all are sour, appetizing and digestive. The notes clarify the distinction between the various Citrus species mentioned in the text, including cross-references between Jambira, Nimbuka, and Matulunga. Verses: Various.
Note on Brihati and Kantakari properties
बृहत्यादि गुण
The text provides a combined description of properties for Brihati and Kantakari (the two Kateri plants). Both are Katu (pungent), Tikta (bitter), Deepana (digestive stimulant), and especially effective against Kapha and Vata disorders. Their combined use is indicated in Kasa (cough), Shwasa (asthma), Jwara (fever), and Parshavaruk (flank pain). They are referred to collectively as 'Kantakari-dvaya'.
Nut Grass
मुस्तक
Cyperus rotundus Linn.
Motha (Nut Grass / Cyperus rotundus) is one of the most important digestive herbs in Ayurveda. It is a perennial sedge found throughout India, growing near water bodies and in moist areas. The rhizomes (tubers) are the medicinally used part. The text describes it as bitter, pungent, and astringent with cooling potency. Despite being cooling, it is an excellent digestive and appetizer. It is widely used for diarrhea, dyspepsia, fever, thirst, and as a galactagogue purifier. The text states it pacifies Kapha and Pitta. The tubers are dark brown externally and reddish-white internally. The drug is a key ingredient in many classical formulations like Mustadi Kwatha. It acts as an anti-inflammatory and is used in menstrual disorders. The text also describes its use in skin conditions and worm infestations. The aromatic essential oil in the tubers contributes to its digestive properties.
Nutmeg
जातीफल
Myristica fragrans Houtt
Jatiphala (Nutmeg) is the dried seed kernel of Myristica fragrans. It is one of the most valued spices and aromatic drugs in Ayurveda. The drug is pungent and bitter in taste with hot potency. It is an excellent digestive, anti-diarrheal, and aphrodisiac. It improves appetite and taste perception. Nutmeg has mild narcotic properties when used in excess. The volatile oil contains myristicin which has significant pharmacological activity. It is used in diarrhea, dyspepsia, and as a component of many compound formulations.
Nux-vomica
कुपीलु
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.
Kupilu (Nux-vomica) is a moderate-sized tree found in the forests of Southern and Eastern India. The seeds are extremely toxic and contain the powerful alkaloid Strychnine. The seeds must be purified (Shodhana) before internal use - they are never used raw. After proper purification (boiling in cow's urine, milk etc.), the seeds become a powerful medicine used in paralysis, facial palsy, Vata disorders and as a nerve tonic. The purified seeds improve appetite and digestion. The bark is bitter and febrifuge. The chemical composition is dominated by Strychnine (1.25-1.5% in dry seeds) and Brucine. The seeds also contain Loganin and Vomicine. Extreme caution is required as the lethal dose of Strychnine is very small. Only use after proper Shodhana. Dose: After Shodhana 1/2 to 1 ratti maximum; Churna 1/2 ratti. Verses: 19.
Oldenlandia
क्षेत्रपर्पट
Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn.
Kshetraparpata (Oldenlandia corymbosa) is described as a field variety of Parpata. It grows commonly in fields during rainy season, reaching 8000 feet altitude. The plant has small white flowers and is 8-25 inches tall. It is used primarily as a febrifuge and for Pitta disorders. The text notes it is one of several plants known by the name Parpata across different regions, and lists multiple botanical correlates including species from Fumariaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and Acanthaceae families.
Onion
पलाण्डु
Allium cepa Linn.
Palandu (Onion) is one of the most universally used vegetables in Indian cooking. It is pungent when raw, sweet when cooked. It is heavy, oily and hot. It strengthens the body and is considered aphrodisiac. It pacifies Vata. Different varieties — white, red and pink. It is used in virtually all Indian preparations. Verse: 63.
Onosma
गोजिह्वा
Onosma bracteatum Wall.
Onosma bracteatum is found in Himalayan regions at altitudes from 1200 feet. The leaves are 15 inches long, with characteristic bristly texture (1"x1" bristles). The root yields a red dye. The plant is used in heart disorders, urinary problems, and wound healing. The leaves are also used medicinally. It is mentioned alongside Elephantopus as both share the name 'Gojiha'. Verse: 278-279.
Opium
अहिफेन
Papaver somniferum Linn.
Ahiphena (Opium) is the dried latex obtained from unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum. It is classified as a Visha (poison) and Upavisha. After purification, it is used in very small doses as a powerful analgesic, sedative, anti-diarrheal, and antitussive. The text warns about its addictive nature and toxic effects in excessive doses. It is used in preparations for severe pain, intractable diarrhea, cough, and sleeplessness. Purification involves trituration with specific herbs. Dose: extremely small — 1/4 to 1/2 Ratti. Verses: 196-200.
Opium Poppy
अहिफेन
Papaver somniferum Linn.
Opium (Afeem/Ahiphena) is the dried latex from unripe poppy seed capsules. Contains Morphine — the most powerful natural analgesic known. In Ayurveda, highly purified opium in minute doses was used for severe pain, intractable diarrhea, and insomnia. Now a strictly controlled substance. Poppy seeds (Khus-khus/Posta) themselves are not narcotic and are used in cooking.
Orange
नारङ्गी
Citrus reticulata Blanco
Narangi (Orange) is an evergreen tree cultivated in many parts of India, particularly in Nagpur (Maharashtra), Coorg and Northeast India. The fruit is juicy, sweet-sour and one of the most popular fruits. It is appetizing and digestive. The fruit juice is rich in Vitamin C and is nutritive. The rind contains essential oils used in perfumery. Orange marmalade and juice are popular preparations. The fruit is beneficial for heart, digestion and immunity. Chemical composition includes Citric acid, Vitamin C, Bioflavonoids (Hesperidin) and essential oil (Limonene) in the rind. Dose: As food. Verses: 17.
Orpiment
हरिताल
Arsenic trisulphide (As2S3)
Haritala (Orpiment) is a yellow arsenic mineral. Two types are described: Patra Haritala (foliated) and Pindi Haritala (massive). The foliated type is considered superior. It is used in skin diseases, vitiligo, worm infestations, and as a component of Rasa formulations. Like Manahshila, it must be carefully purified before use. Externally applied in skin conditions and hair removal. Verses: 66-68.
Padmaka
पद्मक
Prunus cerasoides D. Don (Prunus puddum Roxb.)
Padmaka (Prunus cerasoides/P. puddum, Fam. Rosaceae) is Wild Himalayan Cherry found in the Himalayas at 3000-6000 feet. The heartwood is reddish and fragrant. It is cooling, astringent-bitter, and primarily used in bleeding disorders, burning sensations, and skin diseases. An important ingredient in many Ayurvedic formulations for Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). The bark is used in Ayurvedic practice. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 18.
Paduka
पद्मचारिणी
Stereospermum chelonoides DC.
Additional description of Patala/Paduka (Stereospermum chelonoides) as part of the Dashamula herbs. The root is used in Dashamularishta and other classical formulations.
Panchakola
पंचकोल
Combination
Five pungent drugs for digestion. Especially useful in Ama (undigested food toxins) conditions and weak digestion.
Pandanus Flowers
केतकी
Pandanus odoratissimus Roxb.
Additional properties of Ketaki (Pandanus) flower are described here including its use in heart conditions, headache, and as a brain tonic. The distilled water (Kewda water) is used in cooking, especially in sweets and biryanis. The essential oil is used in perfumery. The flower is considered auspicious but traditionally not offered to Lord Shiva. Verse: 12-14.
Panifala
पानीयामलक
Flacourtia cataphracta Roxb.
Paniyamalaka is a moderate-sized thorny tree found in the sub-Himalayan tracts and Eastern India. The fruit is sour, small and eaten fresh or pickled. The bark is astringent. The fruit is used in digestive disorders. Dose: As food. Verse: 25.
Parasiki Vacha varieties
पारसीक वचा
Various Smilax species
Different from true Vacha (Acorus calamus). Share some properties. Used as substitutes in various regions.
Henbane
पारसीकयवानी
Hyoscyamus niger Linn.
A narcotic plant used carefully in small doses for pain relief and insomnia.
Parpata
पर्पट
Fumaria indica Pugsley
Parpata (Fumaria indica), known as Pittapapda or Indian Fumitory, is a key herb for Pitta disorders. The whole plant is used medicinally. It has a markedly bitter taste and cooling potency. It is extensively used in fevers, burning sensation, excessive thirst, and blood disorders. The Fumaric acid content gives it its characteristic properties. It is one of the herbs commonly used in formulations for Jwara (fever) and Daha (burning sensation). Multiple species are referenced including F. indica, F. officinalis, and F. parviflora.
Parvati
पर्वती
Pogostemon patchouli Hook. f.
Another reference to Patchouli leaves in the context of fumigation and aromatic preparations. The dried leaves are intensely aromatic and used in cosmetics and aromatherapy.
Parvati/Pavati
पर्पटी
Not definitively identified
Parpati/Parvati is mentioned in the text as a bitter drug with cooling properties used in fevers and digestive disorders. The exact botanical identity is discussed in the commentary.
Pashanbhed
पाषाणभेद
Bergenia ligulata Wall. (primary); multiple substitutes
Most important drug for urinary stones (Ashmari) in Ayurveda. Multiple plants are used as Pashanbhed in different regions of India. Bergenia ligulata (from Himalayas, 5000+ feet) is considered the authentic one. The rhizome is used.
Patala
पाटला
Stereospermum suaveolens DC.
Patala (Stereospermum suaveolens) is another important member of the Dashamula (Brihat Panchamula) group. It is a medium-sized deciduous tree with fragrant flowers. The root bark is bitter and astringent. It is used primarily in combination with other Dashamula drugs for managing inflammatory conditions, respiratory disorders, and fevers. The flowers are notably fragrant and the root bark is the main part used in Ayurvedic formulations.
Patalgaruda Gaudi
गुडूची पत्रा
Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels
Cocculus hirsutus is described as a twining herb useful in fevers, swellings, and urinary disorders. The leaves and roots are used. It grows as a hairy climber in tropical regions. Verse ref: page 449.
Patalgarudi
पातालगरुडी
Not clearly specified
Patalagarudi is described as an herb used primarily as an antidote to poisons, especially snake venom. The name suggests its root goes deep into the ground (Patala = underground). It is used in various anti-venom formulations. Verse ref: page 448.
Patchouli
पचौली
Pogostemon patchouli Hook. f.
Patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli) is described in the text as an aromatic plant. Its leaves yield the famous patchouli oil used extensively in perfumery. The plant is native to Southeast Asia and is cultivated in tropical regions. The leaves have a strong, distinctive, musky aroma. The dried leaves are used in sachets and as an aromatic. In Ayurveda, it is used for its aromatic and cooling properties. The essential oil is valued in modern aromatherapy. The text mentions it in the context of fragrant substances in the Karpuradi Varga.
Peacock Flower
युथिका
Jasminum humile Linn.
Jasminum humile is the yellow-flowered jasmine found in the Himalayan region. It is a shrub growing at higher altitudes. The flowers are bright yellow and mildly fragrant. It is also known as Pili Chameli. Some consider it an Apocynaceae member but it belongs to Oleaceae. Mentioned in the commentary as one of the jasmine variants. Verse: noted with other jasmines.
Pear
नाशपाती
Pyrus communis Linn.
Nashpati (Pear) is a temperate fruit cultivated in the Himalayan regions and parts of North India. The fruit is sweet-astringent and nutritive. It is somewhat heavy to digest. The fruit is eaten fresh and used in preserves. Several varieties are cultivated. Dose: As food. Verse: 78.
Peela Bhangra
पीत भृंगराज
Wedelia calendulacea Less.
Peela Bhangra (Wedelia calendulacea) is described as the yellow-flowered relative of Bhringaraj. The text notes that some scholars identify this as the true Bhringaraj while others consider Eclipta alba as the authentic one. It has similar hair-promoting and rejuvenative properties. The yellow flowers distinguish it from the white-flowered Eclipta alba. Verse ref: page 430.
Peelu
पीलू
Salvadora persica Linn.
Peelu (Salvadora) is a thorny shrub or small tree found in arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The root and stem twigs are widely used as natural toothbrushes (Miswak) across the Middle East and parts of India. The twigs contain natural fluorides and antibacterial compounds. The fruit is small, sweet when ripe and pungent. The leaves and bark have purgative properties. The oil from seeds (Peelu oil) is used externally. The tree is important in desert ecology. Chemical analysis shows the twigs contain Trimethylamine, Chlorides and Fluorides which contribute to dental health. Dose: Twig for tooth cleaning; fruit as food. Verse: 79.
Peepal Tree
अश्वत्थ
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Ashvattha (Peepal) is the most sacred tree in Hinduism and Buddhism. It is a large deciduous tree found throughout India, often planted near temples. The bark, leaves, fruits, latex and tender shoots are all used medicinally. The bark is astringent and is used in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders), Yoniroga (uterine disorders), and skin diseases. The tender leaf buds are useful in Raktapitta. The fruit is laxative and digestive. The dried fruits are given in asthma. The bark decoction is used as a gargle for oral diseases and stomatitis. The latex is applied on cracked skin. The bark is used in combination with other astringent barks. Ashvattha is one of the Panchavalkala (five barks). Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 5-8.
Pentas
बन्धूक
Pentapetes phoenicea Linn.
Bandhuka / Dupahariya (Pentapetes phoenicea) is an annual herb that opens its flowers around noon, hence the Hindi name 'Dopahariya' (of noon). The flowers are bright red or orange, 2-2.5 inches across. The plant grows 6-20 inches tall. The flowers are used in bleeding disorders and as a skin tonic. It has cooling properties. Verse: 30.
Phalsa
धामन
Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl.
Parushaka (Phalsa) is a small tree or shrub found throughout the plains of India. The fruit is small, round, dark purple when ripe and has a sweet-sour taste. It is a popular summer fruit, eaten fresh or as sherbet. The fruit juice is cooling, thirst-quenching and excellent in summer heat. It is useful in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) and Daha (burning sensation). The fruit is seasonal, available in May-June. The bark is demulcent. Dose: Fruit as food; sherbet freely. Verses: 37.
Phyllanthus
भूम्यामलकी
Phyllanthus niruri Linn.
Bhumyamalaki (Phyllanthus niruri) is a small annual herb growing up to 2000 feet altitude. It closely resembles a miniature Amla plant, with small leaves and tiny fruits arranged along the underside of branches. It is one of the best herbs for liver disorders, jaundice, and hepatitis. The whole plant is used. It contains Phyllanthin as the main active principle. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. is mentioned as a related species. The plant is used extensively in modern phytomedicine for hepatoprotective activity. Dose: Swarasa 5-12 tola; Churna 0.5-0.95 tola. Verse: 269-276.
Pine Resin
सरल
Pinus longifolia Roxb. (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.)
Sarala (Pinus longifolia/P. roxburghii, Fam. Pinaceae) is the Chir Pine, the most common pine in the Indian Himalayas. Found at 2000-7000 feet elevation. The tree yields oleoresin (Chir/Cheed) from which turpentine oil and rosin are obtained by distillation. Medicinally, the resin and oil are used in skin diseases, parasitic infestations, and wound conditions. Pine tar (Cheed/Chirha) is obtained by destructive distillation. Properties are hot, penetrating, and Kapha-Vata pacifying. The resin is applied externally for skin conditions and internally as an expectorant. Also known as Dhup (incense) tree due to the aromatic resin used in fumigation. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 26-27.
Pippali
पिप्पली
Piper longum Linn.
Pippali has a special property — Katu taste but Madhura Vipaka. Though pungent, it does not aggravate Pitta due to sweet post-digestive effect. One of the best Rasayana drugs when used via Vardhamana Pippali method (gradually increasing then decreasing doses). Ingredient of Trikatu.
Pippali Mula
पिप्पलीमूल
Piper longum Linn. (root)
Root of Pippali. Stronger in Deepana action than the fruit. More Ushna than fruit. Part of Panchakola group. Especially useful in abdominal disorders.
Polycarpea
पिप्पल्याभ
Polycarpea corymbosa Lam.
Pippalpabha (Polycarpea corymbosa) is yet another plant identified by some as a Parpata variety. It grows in rainy season in fields, forming small bunches 2-8 inches tall. The plant has silvery-white inflorescences. It is used as a coolant and is considered bitter in taste.
Polygonum
सपेडी
Polygonum plebejum R. Br.
Polygonum plebejum is found across India at up to 5000 feet. It is a small prostrate herb with tiny pink flowers. The whole plant is used. It is used for worm infestations and urinary complaints. It is commonly found on wastelands and paths. Dose: 2-4 tola. Verse: mentioned in the guduchyadi section.
Pomegranate
दाडिम
Punica granatum Linn.
Dadima (Pomegranate/Anar) is one of the most valued fruits in Ayurveda. It is a small tree or shrub cultivated throughout India. The fruit is unique in being Tridoshahara (pacifying all three doshas). The sweet variety is the most useful medicinally. The fruit juice is excellent for the heart, digestion and blood formation. The rind (bark) of the fruit is highly astringent and used in diarrhea, dysentery and oral diseases. The root bark contains Pelletierine, an alkaloid used as an anthelmintic, particularly effective against tapeworm (Taenia). The fruit is one of the few fruits recommended even during illness. The flower buds (Pushpa) are used in bleeding disorders. Three varieties are described: sweet (Madhura), sour (Amla) and sweet-sour (Madhura-Amla). The sweet variety is considered the best. Pomegranate is mentioned as Hridya (best for the heart) in multiple Ayurvedic texts. Dose: Fruit as food; rind powder 1-2 masha; root bark for tapeworm as directed. Verses: 39.
Prickly Pear
कर्णिकार
Pterospermum acerifolium Willd.
The flower of Karnikara (Pterospermum) is specifically described for its fragrance and cooling properties. The large white flowers bloom at night. They are used in Pitta disorders and skin complaints. Verse: 28.
Prishnaparni
पृश्नपर्णी
Uraria picta Desv.
Prishnaparni (Uraria picta), also known as Pithvan, is a member of the Laghu Panchamula (five smaller root drugs of Dashamula). It is an erect herb found in the forests of India. The leaves are spotted/variegated (hence the name Prishna = spotted, Parni = leaved). The root is used medicinally. A second species, Uraria lagopoides DC., is also mentioned as a substitute. The plant is valued for its anti-pyretic and anti-diarrheal properties and is an essential ingredient in Dashamula combinations.
Priyangu
प्रियंगु
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl
Priyangu is the fruit and flowers of Callicarpa macrophylla, a shrub found throughout the sub-Himalayan region and peninsular India. The text notes that there is debate about the identity of Priyangu -- some consider it Callicarpa macrophylla (Beauty Berry) while others have identified it with different plants. The text describes the drug as bitter, astringent, and sweet with cooling potency. The fruits are small, round, clustered, and violet-purple when ripe. The drug is one of the important Raktapitta (bleeding disorder) remedies. It is used for burning sensation, thirst, fever, and as an absorbent in diarrhea. The flowers are fragrant and used in perfumery. It is considered Tridoshahara but primarily pacifies Pitta and Kapha. The commentary discusses various controversies about the true botanical identity of Priyangu. Dose: 3-6 grams.
Priyangu variety 1
फलप्रियंगु
Aglaia roxburghiana Miq.
This is a variety of Priyangu identified as Aglaia roxburghiana of the Meliaceae family. The commentary discusses this as one of the plants sometimes used as Priyangu. The plant is a small to medium-sized tree. The fruits are small and used medicinally. It has cooling properties and is used in bleeding disorders and burning sensations.
Priyangu variety 2
महालेब
Prunus mahaleb Linn.
This is another plant discussed in the commentary as a possible identity for Priyangu. Prunus mahaleb is a cherry tree found in Western Asia. It produces small, cherry-like fruits. The bark and seeds contain hydrocyanic acid, coumarin, salicylic acid, and amygdalin. It has cooling properties and is used for complexion improvement and bleeding disorders. The commentary mentions this as part of the ongoing debate about Priyangu's true identity.
Priyangu variety 3
प्रियंगु
Aglaia roxburghiana Miq.
This is the Aglaia roxburghiana variety of Priyangu discussed in the commentary. The text mentions that some scholars identify this Meliaceae family plant as the true Priyangu. The small flowers are fragrant. The commentary evaluates different species identified as Priyangu by various authorities and discusses the merits of each identification.
Prosopis
शमी
Prosopis cineraria (Linn.) Druce
Shami (Prosopis) is a medium-sized thorny tree found in arid and semi-arid regions of India, particularly Rajasthan. The tree is sacred in Hindu tradition - Shami puja is an important ritual. The bark, leaves and pods are used medicinally. The pods are eaten as a vegetable and cattle fodder. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases and piles. The leaves are used in eye diseases. The tree produces a gum similar to Gum Arabic. It is drought-resistant and important in desert ecology. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; leaf juice 1-2 tola. Verse: 39.
Punarnava
पुनर्नवा
Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.
Punarnava (Boerhaavia diffusa) is one of the most important diuretic and anti-edema herbs in Ayurveda. Its name literally means 'that which renews the body.' The text distinguishes between two species: Boerhaavia diffusa (Rakta Punarnava, red variety) and Trianthema portulacastrum (Shweta Punarnava, white variety). However, the text notes these are often confused and The Wealth of India Vol.1 clarifies that B. diffusa is the true Punarnava. The plant is a prostrate, spreading herb with reddish stems. The root is the main medicinal part, containing the alkaloid Punarnavine (0.04%). It is sweet, bitter, astringent, light, dry, and hot in potency. It is the premier herb for edema (Shotha) and fluid retention - being strongly diuretic. Also useful in heart diseases, liver disorders, kidney diseases, anemia, and as a rejuvenative. The text mentions it is also valuable in ascites, nephritis, and general debility. Dose: root powder 1-3 grams; decoction 40-80 ml. Verse refs: pages 421-423.
Pupalia
नागदमनी
Pupalia lappacea Moq.
Nagadamani (Pupalia lappacea) is found in jungles across India. It is a hairy herb with characteristic hooked bristle fruits that stick to clothing. Used as an antidote and in inflammatory conditions. The roots are the primary medicinal part. Verse: mentioned in the context of anti-venom herbs.
Purified Poison Treatment
शोधितविष
Various purified poisons
The text describes the general principles of Visha Shodhana (poison purification). All poisons — mineral, plant, and animal — must be properly purified before medicinal use. The Shodhana process reduces toxicity while retaining therapeutic properties. General methods include Swedana (steaming), Bhavana (trituration with detoxifying herbs), Nimajjana (immersion in specific liquids like cow's urine, lime water), and Prakshalana (washing). The dosage of purified poisons must be extremely small and carefully monitored. The text also describes Upavisha (sub-poisons) — substances that are mildly toxic and require less rigorous purification. The section lists 7 Upavisha categories. Verses: 200-206.
Purple Lippia
जलपीपल
Lippia nodiflora Mich.
Jalvipipalika (Lippia nodiflora) is a prostrate creeping herb found in moist areas. The entire herb is used in traditional medicine. It is commonly found near water courses and on wet grounds. Used in urinary disorders and as an anti-inflammatory. The plant has small purple or white flowers in dense heads. Dose: 2-3 tola; Churna 1-2 tola. Verse: 269-296.
Orris Root
पुष्करमूल
Iris germanica Linn.; also Inula racemosa
Important drug for respiratory disorders, especially asthma. The rhizome is used. Some confusion exists between Iris germanica (true Pushkarmool) and Inula racemosa (also called Pushkarmool). Both have anti-asthmatic properties.
Rajadana
राजाम्र
Mangifera indica Linn. (grafted variety)
Rajamra (Kalami/Grafted Mango) is the superior variety of mango obtained through grafting. It is considered the best among all mangoes. The fruit is very sweet, fragrant and has less fiber compared to wild varieties. It is more nutritious and better for Vrishya (aphrodisiac) purposes. It is the most commonly cultivated variety today. Verses: 2.
Ramacham
रामचम
Ramacham is briefly mentioned in the context of fragrant grasses.
Rasot
रसौत
Extract of Indian Berberis (Extractum Berberis)
Rasaut is a concentrated aqueous extract of Daruharidra bark — the bark is boiled in water repeatedly and concentrated into a paste. Used topically for eye diseases (applied as Anjana) and as an anti-infective. The yellow color is from Berberine. Important traditional preparation.
Rasna
रस्ना
Pluchea lanceolata Oliver & Hiern
Most important Vatahara drug. Leaves used. Found in dry regions of North/Central India. Ingredient of Rasnadi Churna, Rasnadi Kwatha.
Realgar
मनःशिला
Arsenic disulphide (As2S2)
Manahshila (Realgar) is a red arsenic mineral. It is used after purification in skin diseases, worm infestations, fevers, and poisoning. It is a component of many Rasa formulations. Two types are recognized — Shyama (dark) and Rakta (red). It must be carefully purified as it contains arsenic. Used externally in skin diseases and internally in very small doses. Verses: 63-65.
Red Ochre
गैरिक
Red Ochre (Fe2O3 — ferric oxide)
Gairika (Red Ochre) is a red-coloured iron-rich earth/mineral. Two types are described: Swarna Gairika (golden-red, superior) and Dhatu Gairika. It is used in bleeding disorders, vomiting, eye diseases, and skin conditions. It is cooling and astringent. Used both internally (as Bhasma) and externally (as paste). Verses: 119-120.
Red Sandalwood
रक्तचन्दन
Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f.
Rakta Chandan (Pterocarpus santalinus, Fam. Leguminosae) is Red Sandalwood, distinct from white Sandalwood (Santalum album). Found in Southern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka). The tree grows up to 25 feet. The heartwood is deep red, very hard, and heavy. It does not have the fragrance of white Chandan. Used primarily as a coloring agent, coolant, and in bleeding disorders. Contains Santalin — a red dye. The wood shows annual rings in transverse section. Used externally as a paste for burning sensation and wounds. Also used as a fabric dye. The sapwood is yellowish-white and has no medicinal value. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 15-16.
Mansarohini
मांसरोहिणी
Soymida febrifuga A. Juss.
Mansarohini (Soymida febrifuga) is a large tree primarily valued for promoting wound healing and tissue regeneration, as suggested by its name 'Mansarohini' (flesh-growing). The heartwood is red in colour. The bark is extremely bitter and astringent. It is mainly used in fracture healing, wound management, and as a febrifuge. The bark is used in diarrhoea due to its astringent properties. It is found commonly in Rajputana and Central India. The bark contains tannin and a bitter principle useful in fevers. The timber is red and durable. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola; bark powder 2-4 masha.
Renuka
रेणुका
Piper aurantiacum Wall.
Renuka is described as a member of the Piperaceae family, identified as Piper aurantiacum. The text mentions it has pungent taste with heating potency. It is found in the forests of central and eastern India. The fruits are small and used medicinally. The drug is used as a digestive, expectorant, and anthelmintic. The text notes that the plant produces small berries. Renuka is not widely available in the market and may be substituted by related Piper species. Dose: 1-3 grams.
Rhododendron
रक्ताश्व
Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don; R. campanulatum D. Don; R. lepidotum Wall.
The text mentions Rhododendron species in the context of Talisapatra discussion. Three species are noted: R. anthopogon (found at 10-14,000 feet, 2-4 feet tall shrub with aromatic leaves, 1-2 inch flowers), R. campanulatum (found at higher altitudes, 4-12 feet tall with white-pink flowers), and R. lepidotum (found at similar altitudes). The flowers and leaves have medicinal value. The commentary discusses these as Himalayan aromatic plants sometimes confused with Talisapatra. They are used in cough preparations. R. anthopogon is particularly aromatic and used in Tibetan medicine as well. Dose: 2-4 grams.
Rhubarb
रेवन्दचीनी
Rheum emodi Wall.
Revandchini (Rhubarb) is the root of Rheum emodi. It is used as a liver tonic, purgative, and digestive stimulant. The root is brownish-red with a characteristic smell. It contains Anthraquinone glycosides which give it its purgative action. Used in liver disorders, constipation, and indigestion. Available as R. emodi (Indian) and R. webbianum Royle varieties. The root yields a yellow dye. Dose: 2-4 Masha. Verses: 131-133.
Ridge Gourd
देवदाली
Luffa echinata Roxb.
Devadali (Luffa echinata) is a climbing plant found in dry scrub forests. Its fruits are small and covered with soft spines. The fruit is extremely bitter and is used as a purgative and in malarial fever. It is also effective against worms and used in skin diseases. The fruit is used for jaundice and liver disorders. The decoction of fruit is used as nasal drops (Nasya) for headache. Verse: 299-301.
Rock Salt
सैंधव लवण
Sodii chloridum (Sodium chloride — natural)
Saindhava (Rock Salt) is considered the best among all salts in Ayurveda. Unlike common salt (Samudra Lavana), it does not aggravate Pitta. It is recommended for daily use over sea salt. Found naturally in salt mines, especially in Sindh/Punjab region (hence Saindhava — from Sindhu). Contains trace minerals. Recommended as the salt of choice in Ayurvedic diet.
Rohitaka Tree
रोहीतक
Tecomella undulata Seem.
Rohitaka is a medium-sized tree found in dry and arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The bark is the main medicinal part, particularly valued for its action on the liver and spleen. It is the drug of choice in Pleehodara (splenic enlargement) and Yakrit roga (liver diseases). The bark is given with buttermilk or in decoction form. It is one of the most important hepatoprotective drugs in Ayurveda. The tree also yields good quality timber used in furniture. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; Churna 1-2 masha. Verse: 18.
Rose
शतपत्री
Rosa centifolia Linn.
Gulab (Rose, Rosa centifolia) is extensively cultivated across India. The flowers are 4-5 inches across and highly fragrant. Rose water (Gulab Jal) is widely used in cooking, medicine, and cosmetics. Rose oil (Gulab ka Attar) is one of the most expensive essential oils. The flower petals are used in Gulkand (rose petal preserve), which is cooling and useful in Pitta disorders. Roses come in various colors - red, pink, white, yellow. The red rose is most commonly used medicinally. The rose hips are also nutritious. Rosa alba (Sevanti Gulab) is the white variety used as a mild laxative. Dose: Gulkand 2-4 tola. Verse: 11-13.
Rose Mallow
वनमल्लिका
Jasminum arborescens Roxb.
Vanamallika is described as a tree-type jasmine (Jasminum arborescens) found in forests. It has white fragrant flowers. It differs from the cultivated varieties in being more robust and tree-like. Used similarly to other jasmines for skin and blood purification. Verse: noted in commentary.
Rose-flowered Hibiscus
स्थलकमल
Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.
Sthala Padma (Hibiscus mutabilis) is a land lotus - a hibiscus variety with flowers that change color from white in the morning to pink and then deep red by evening. It is called 'Confederate Rose'. The flowers are large, double-petaled and beautiful. The plant has broad lobed leaves. It grows as a large shrub or small tree. The flowers are used in Pitta disorders and bleeding conditions. Dose: 5-4 inches flowers; Churna 1-2 tola. Verse: 12-13.
Rohisha
रोहिष
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Linn.
Rohisha (Cymbopogon schoenanthus) is an aromatic grass used medicinally and for extraction of essential oil. It is found mainly in central and southern regions of India. The grass has a strong lemon-like fragrance. It yields Geranium oil on distillation. The root and leaves are used medicinally. It is a stimulant, carminative, and digestive. Used in Kapha and Vata disorders, indigestion, and worm infestations. The grass is used as a flavoring agent and in perfumery. Dose: decoction 2-4 masha.
Rudraksha
रुद्राक्ष
Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.
Rudraksha is a large evergreen tree found in sub-Himalayan tracts up to about 6000 feet altitude. The fruit stones (seeds) are the well-known Rudraksha beads, sacred to Lord Shiva and used extensively in religious practice. The beads have 1 to 21 faces (Mukhis). Medicinally, the fruit has cardiovascular and neurological benefits. The bark and seeds are used in heart diseases, hypertension and as a brain tonic. Modern research has confirmed its anti-hypertensive and anti-inflammatory properties. The alkaloid Elaeocarpine has tranquilizing action. The fruits are strung on thread and worn as a mala (rosary). Dose: Seed powder 1-2 ratti. Verses: Described in tree section.
Sacred Garlic Pear
वरुण
Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham.
Varuna is one of the most important trees in Ayurvedic surgery. It is a medium to large sized tree found throughout India. The bark is the main medicinal part and is extensively used in Ashmari (urinary calculi), Mutrakrichhra (dysuria), and Gulma (abdominal tumors). The bark is diuretic and lithotriptic. It is considered the best drug for breaking kidney and bladder stones. The tender leaves are used as a vegetable and the fruit is edible. The bark decoction is given with honey for urinary stones. The tree is also useful in enlargement of the prostate and other urinary disorders. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; churna (powder) 1-2 ratti. Verses: 13.
Sacred Lotus
कमल
Nelumbium speciosum Willd.
Kamala (Sacred Lotus) is one of the most revered flowers in Indian tradition and Ayurveda. The plant grows in ponds, lakes and stagnant waters throughout India. The leaves are large, peltate (1-2 feet across), waxy, and water-repellent, 4-10 inches in diameter. The lotus has multiple parts used medicinally: flower (pushpa), seeds (bija), rhizome (mrinala), stamens, and the entire plant. The flowers are white, pink or red. The petals are used in bleeding disorders, heart weakness, and burning sensation. The rhizome is nutritious and eaten as a vegetable. The seeds (Kamal Gatta) are astringent and used in diarrhea. The stamens are used for complexion and as an aphrodisiac. Lotus is classified as Sheeta Virya (cold potency) making it excellent for Pitta disorders. The whole plant is considered sacred and has both medicinal and spiritual significance. Dose: Swarasa 1-2 tola; seeds as food. Verse: 1-4.
Safflower
कुसुम्भ
Carthamus tinctorius Linn.
Kusumbha (Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius) is an important flower used for its dye and oil. The flowers yield a red-orange dye (Carthamin) used in textiles and food coloring. The seeds yield Safflower oil, rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The flowers are used medicinally as an emmenagogue and in joint pains. The plant is thistle-like with spiny leaves. It grows 2-4 feet tall. The oil is used in cooking and for cardiac health. The dried flowers are used in Ayurvedic preparations. Dose: 1-2 tola seeds; flowers externally. Verse: 19.
Saffron
केसर
Crocus sativus Linn.
Kesar (Saffron) is obtained from the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus. It is cultivated mainly in Kashmir and also imported from countries like Iran and Spain. The text describes it as bitter and pungent with unctuous quality. It is heating in potency. Saffron alleviates all three doshas (Tridosha). It is one of the most valued drugs for complexion enhancement (Varnya), and is extensively used in cosmetic and therapeutic formulations. The text mentions its use in headache, cardiac disorders, and as a general tonic. A paste of saffron applied externally improves skin complexion. It is used in asthma, cough, fever, and as a uterine tonic. The corms (bulbs) produce the plant, and the stigmas are the medicinally valuable part. The Spathe, Scape, Perianth (funnel-shaped tube), Stamens, Anther, Style, and Capsule are described botanically. The Stigma is the key part collected. Dose: 50-125 mg.
Barleria
सहचर
Barleria sp.
Sahachara (Barleria sp.) is a shrubby plant used primarily for Vata disorders. The root and leaves are used medicinally. The text describes multiple species used under this name. It is a common ingredient in Ayurvedic hair oils. The plant has anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, making it useful for joint pain and rheumatic conditions.
Sal Resin
राल
Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.
Rala is the resin obtained from the Sal tree (Shorea robusta). It is astringent and sweet in taste with cooling potency. It is primarily used for wound healing and as a hemostatic agent. The resin is applied externally on wounds and fractures. Internally it is used for diarrhea and bleeding disorders. It is an important ingredient in plasters and ointments used in bone-setting.
Saltpetre
सुवर्चिका
Potassium Nitrate (Potassii Nitras)
Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃) — found naturally. Used as diuretic and in urinary stone conditions. Also used in food preservation.
Samudriphena
समुद्रफेन
Sepia officinalis
Internal shell of cuttlefish. Used externally as Anjana for eye diseases and skin care.
Sandalwood
चन्दन
Santalum album Linn.
Chandan (Santalum album, Fam. Santalaceae) is one of the most valued aromatic woods in Ayurveda. Found extensively in Mysore (Karnataka) forests where trees over 4000 years old are known. The heartwood develops fragrant oil only after 40-50 years of growth. Multiple varieties described — Shveta (white), Rakta (red), Pita (yellow), Kaliyaka (dark). Sandalwood is cooling, bitter-sweet, and is one of the best Pitta-pacifying drugs. It is extensively used in burning sensation, fever, skin diseases, urinary disorders, and bleeding conditions. Applied externally as a paste for skin cooling and complexion improvement. Sandalwood oil contains alpha and beta-santalol as the chief constituents. The wood from Mysore is considered the finest globally. West Indian, East African, and Australian sandalwood are inferior varieties. Several tests for adulteration described. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 11-13.
Sandalwood -- referenced in Karpuradi Varga context
चन्दन
Santalum album Linn.
Chandana (Sandalwood) is one of the most prized aromatic woods in Ayurveda, obtained from Santalum album. The heartwood is used for its cooling and fragrant properties. It is extensively used in skin care, burning sensation, fever, and heart conditions. Mysore sandalwood is considered the finest quality. The paste is applied externally for skin disorders and internally for urinary and blood disorders. It pacifies Pitta and Kapha.
Sangeyashab — Green Jade
संगेयशब
Jade / Nephrite
Sangeyashab (Green Jade) is a green semi-precious stone used as Bhasma in heart diseases and as an anti-poison remedy. It is cooling in nature. Verses: 122.
Sappan Wood
पतङ्ग
Caesalpinia sappan Linn.
Patanga (Caesalpinia sappan, Fam. Caesalpiniaceae) is Sappan Wood, a medium-sized thorny tree. The heartwood yields a red dye used in fabrics and preparations. It has astringent-bitter taste with cooling potency. Used in blood disorders, skin diseases, and wounds. Heartwood is the medicinal part — deep red with strong coloring properties. Contains Brasilin and Haematoxylin as key chemical principles. Also used as a fabric dye. Its decoction is blood-purifying. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 18-19.
Saptaparna
सप्तपर्ण
Alstonia scholaris R. Br.
Saptaparna (Devil's Tree) is a large evergreen tree growing up to 40-60 feet tall, found throughout India up to 3000 feet. The bark is the main medicinal part. The bark is extremely bitter and is one of the best febrifuge drugs. It is used in chronic and malarial fevers. The milky latex is used in ulcers and skin diseases. The bark contains alkaloids including Echitamine and Ditamine. It is a component of the famous Ayushmanabhairava Rasa. The bark decoction is used in alternating fevers, skin diseases and worm infestations. The bark also contains a glycoside and is used as a substitute for quinine in malarial fever. Dose: Bark powder 1 to 3 masha; decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 40.
Sariva
शारिवा
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.
Sariva or Anantamul (Hemidesmus indicus) is one of the most important blood-purifying herbs in Ayurveda. The root is the main medicinal part, having a characteristic pleasant aroma (resembling camphor or sandalwood). It is described as sweet, bitter, heavy, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is extensively used for blood purification, skin diseases, burning sensations, excessive thirst, urinary disorders, and as a cooling agent. The root when cut releases a fragrant smell. The plant is a slender, twining vine. It is considered superior to the Western Sarsaparilla. It is also aphrodisiac and complexion-enhancing. Used in various formulations including Sarivadyasava. The key chemical is 2-Hydroxy-4-Methoxy benzaldehyde which gives it the distinctive fragrance. Dose: root powder 3-6 grams; decoction 50-100 ml. Verse refs: pages 426-427.
Sarpagandha
सर्पगन्धा
Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz.
Reserpine from this plant revolutionized modern hypertension treatment. Used in Ayurveda for centuries for insomnia, mental disorders, and snake bites. Root is the part used. Small shrub in sub-Himalayan tracts.
Sarpunkha
शरपुंखा
Tephrosia purpurea Linn.
Sarpunkha (Tephrosia purpurea) is one of the most important herbs for splenic disorders. The text highlights it with the synonym 'Plihashatru' (enemy of spleen). It is a herb growing up to 1000 pods at maturity per cluster. The leaves, roots, and whole plant are used medicinally. It is described as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and hot in potency. It is primarily indicated in spleen enlargement (Pliha Roga), liver disorders, skin conditions, blood impurities, and worm infestations. The pods are 4-5 inches long, green when raw turning dark on drying. Rotenone content makes it useful as an insecticide as well. Dose: seeds 1-2 rattis; roots 1-2 tola; leaves 1-2 masha. Verse refs: pages 408-409.
Satyanashi
कटुपर्णी
Argemone mexicana Linn.
A common thorny weed found throughout India. The yellow latex (juice) is used topically for skin diseases. The plant is considered poisonous if consumed internally in large amounts.
Scarlet Cordia
श्लेष्मातक
Cordia sebestena Linn.
Lasora/Gonda (Cordia) is a tree whose fruits are used as a vegetable (pickled). The flowers and fruits are both medicinal. The mucilaginous fruit is used in cough and respiratory conditions. The tree is medium-sized with rough leaves. Referenced in the flower section.
Sea Salt
समुद्र लवण
Sodii muras (Sodium chloride — sea-derived)
Common salt from sea water evaporation. Unlike Saindhava (Rock Salt), it aggravates Pitta and is considered inferior for medicinal use. However, it is the most commonly used salt in cooking worldwide.
Snuhi
स्नुही
Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.
Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia), known as Sehund or Thuhar, is a large succulent shrub with thick fleshy branches containing milky latex. It is found widely across India, often planted as a hedge. The latex (Kshira) is the main medicinal part and is a powerful purgative and Bhedana (piercing) drug. It is a key ingredient in Snuhi Kshira (latex) based formulations like Abhayarishta. The latex is caustic and must be used with great care. Applied externally, it is used for warts, tumors, and skin growths. Internally, purified latex is used as a strong purgative for conditions like ascites, abdominal tumors, and severe constipation. Five species of Euphorbia are mentioned in the text: E. neriifolia, E. nivulia, E. antiquorum, E. trigona, E. trincalli, and E. royleana.
Senna Leaves -- Cassia
स्वर्णपत्री
Cassia absus Linn.
Cassia absus is mentioned in the later section of the Karpuradi Varga. It is a small herb with compound leaves. The seeds are used medicinally and are a mild purgative. The plant grows 1-2 feet tall with yellow flowers. The pods contain 4-6 seeds. The seeds are mucilaginous and used in eye diseases as well. The drug has bitter taste with heating potency. It is used as a laxative, anthelmintic, and for skin diseases. Dose: 1-2 grams.
Sensitive Plant
लज्जालु
Mimosa pudica Linn.
Lajjalu (Mimosa pudica) is well known as the sensitive plant due to its leaves closing on touch. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is particularly useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), diarrhea, and as a uterine tonic. It has wound healing properties and is used in piles and fistula. The root decoction is used in urinary tract infections. Dose: Swarasa 2-4 tola; Churna 1-2 tola.
Serpent Stone -- Mineral variety
गोरोचन
Serpent stone (mineral origin)
This is the mineral/snake-origin variety of Gorochan described in the text as a bezoar stone. The text mentions various types of bezoar obtained from different sources. It shares similar therapeutic properties with the ox-gall variety but is considered distinct in origin. Used primarily as an antidote to poisons and in fever management.
Sesbania
अगस्त्य
Sesbania grandiflora Linn.
Agastya (Sesbania grandiflora) is a fast-growing tree found in tropical and subtropical regions. It grows 14-20 feet tall. The flowers, leaves, and bark are all used medicinally. White and red flowered varieties exist. Flowers are eaten as a vegetable. The bark is used as a bitter tonic. The juice of leaves and flowers is used in nasal polyps and sinusitis. Leaves have 12-15 pairs of leaflets. Flowers are 22-24 inches long in drooping racemes. It is used in respiratory and blood disorders. Dose: Churna (a.r. 24). Verse: noted alongside other tree medicines.
Shaddock
मधुकर्कटी
Citrus decumana Linn.
Madhukarkati (Shaddock/Pomelo/Chakotra) is the largest citrus fruit. The tree grows in many parts of India. The fruit has a thick rind and segmented flesh. The flesh is sweet-sour and refreshing. The fruit is eaten fresh. The rind is used in marmalade. The various citrus fruits including Grape fruit are related to this species. The essential oil from the rind (Neroli oil) is fragrant. Dose: As food. Verse: 52.
Shahtoot
सहदेवा
Streblus asper Lour.
Sahdera (Shahotaka) is a small tree or large shrub found commonly in India. The bark is fibrous and was used for making paper. The young shoots and leaves are very rough. The bark and root are used medicinally, especially for dental problems. The bark is chewed or used as tooth stick. The milky latex is used in fevers and skin diseases. The bark contains a cardiac glycoside (Strebloside). The leaves are used as sandpaper. The tree grows up to 30 feet and has small fruits. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; latex topically. Verse: 34.
Shalaparni
शालपर्णी
Desmodium gangeticum DC.
Shalaparni (Desmodium gangeticum) is a member of the Laghu Panchamula (five smaller root drugs of Dashamula). It is a perennial herb or undershrub found in grasslands and forests across India. The root is the main medicinal part. It is sweet and bitter in taste with warming potency. The plant is particularly useful in fevers, respiratory disorders, and diarrhea. It is a key ingredient in Dashamula formulations and Dashamularishta.
Shallot
एकदंतिय लशुन
Allium ascalonicum Linn.
Similar properties to garlic but milder. Single-cloved variety. Used similarly to regular garlic.
Sarivan
शालपर्णी
Desmodium gangeticum DC.
The text provides additional details on Shalparni as part of the Dashamula discussion. The fruit properties and preparations are described alongside the Laghu Panchamula group.
Shami
शमी
Prosopis cineraria (Linn.) Druce
Shami is a thorny evergreen tree found in the arid regions of Rajasthan and Western India. It is the state tree of Rajasthan. The tree is extremely drought-resistant. The bark, leaves and pods (Sangri) are used medicinally and as food. The pods are a traditional food item in Rajasthan. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases, piles and hair problems. The leaves are used in eye diseases. The tree is worshipped during Dussehra festival. It fixes nitrogen in the soil and is ecologically important in desert regions. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse mentioned.
Shankhapushpi
शंखपुष्पी
Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.
Shankhapushpi (identified here as Crotalaria verrucosa) is one of the four Medhya Rasayanas (brain tonics) of Ayurveda. The flowers resemble a conch shell (Shankha), hence the name. The text notes considerable botanical controversy regarding identity - various plants have been called Shankhapushpi including Convolvulus pluricaulis, Evolvulus alsinoides, and Crotalaria verrucosa. It is described as bitter, pungent, astringent, light, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is primarily used to enhance intellect (Medhya), memory (Smriti), and treat mental disorders. It is also a rejuvenative and strength-giver. The text provides detailed discussion about identification controversies. Verse refs: pages 430-431.
Morning Glory
शंखपुष्पी
Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy
Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) is one of the most celebrated Medhya (brain tonic) herbs in Ayurveda. The text notes it has conch-shell shaped flowers, hence the name. It is a trailing herb found throughout India. It is one of the four Medhya Rasayanas described by Charaka. The plant is used to enhance memory, intellect, and cognitive function. It also has anxiolytic and mild sedative properties, making it useful in anxiety and insomnia. The text distinguishes it from Aparajita (Clitoria ternatea) and Vishnukranta (Evolvulus alsinoides) which are sometimes confused with it.
Shankhapushpi Varga note
शंखपुष्पी
The text references Shankhapushpi and related Medhya herbs as being described further in this varga. These pages mark the beginning of the Guduchyadi Varga which extends to page 477, covering hundreds of medicinal plants.
Shankhpushpi variety
दस्तारकुण्डी
Conscora decussata Schult.
Canscora decussata is another plant used as Shankhapushpi in some regions. It is found at altitudes up to 4000 feet. Some scholars consider this to be the true Shankhapushpi. Its flowers are also conch-shell shaped. Used for similar brain-tonic purposes as other Shankhapushpi varieties. The whole plant is used. Dose: Kvatha 5-15 tola. Verse reference: 269-270.
Bhutrina
शरालण
Sharanga is mentioned as a grass variety used as a diuretic and coolant.
Shatapushpa / Sowa / Dill
शतपुष्पा
Anethum sowa Kurz; Anethum graveolens Linn.
One of the few spices with Sheeta Virya (cold potency), suitable for Pitta conditions. Commonly chewed after meals for digestion and fresh breath.
Shatavari
शतावरी
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Shatavari (Asparagus racemosus) is one of the most important Rasayana drugs in Ayurveda, especially for women. The name 'Shatavari' literally means 'she who possesses a hundred husbands', indicating its powerful reproductive tonic properties. It is a thorny climbing plant with needle-like phylloclades (modified stems). The tuberous roots (10-20 or more from a single plant) are the main medicinal part. Multiple species exist - A. racemosus is the primary species. A. sarmentosus Linn. is mentioned as a related species used similarly. The roots are white, fleshy, and fusiform (spindle-shaped). They contain Shatavarin (steroidal saponin glycoside) and high mucilage content. Shatavari is the premier Stanyajanana (galactagogue) drug and is extensively used to promote lactation. It is also a powerful Rasayana and Vrishya drug. Used in Pitta disorders, burning sensation, hyperacidity, and debility. The roots are processed in milk for maximum efficacy. It is considered the best female reproductive tonic in Ayurveda. Chemical analysis shows 4-5% saponin content. Also used in male reproductive health. Dose: root powder 1-2 masha; with milk; root decoction 2-4 tola.
Shimshapa
शिंशपा
Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth.
Shimshapa is a moderate-sized tree found in the sub-Himalayan forests and Central India. The bark and heartwood are used medicinally. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases and worm infestations. The wood is used for making agricultural implements. It is a notable timber tree. Note: This is sometimes confused with Dalbergia sissoo (true Shisham) but the text refers to Ougeinia. The bark decoction is used in skin diseases. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 41.
Shirisha
शिरीष
Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Benth.
Shirisha (Siris) is a large deciduous tree found throughout India. It is considered the best Vishaghna (anti-toxic) drug in Ayurveda. The bark, seeds, leaves and flowers are used medicinally. The bark is used in poisoning, allergic conditions, snakebite and insect stings. It is a potent anti-allergic drug, used in bronchial asthma, urticaria and other allergic conditions. The flowers are fragrant and used in nasal polyps. The seeds are used in eye diseases. Modern research has confirmed its anti-allergic, anti-histaminic and mast cell stabilizing properties. The bark contains saponins and tannins. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; seed powder 1-2 masha. Verses mentioned.
Shukla Gunja
गुञ्जा
Abrus precatorius Linn.
Gunja (Abrus precatorius) is noted for its characteristic red seeds with black spots used as a standard of weight (Ratti) in traditional Indian systems. The white variety (Shveta Gunja) is considered more medicinal. The seeds contain the highly toxic protein Abrin. Despite toxicity of raw seeds, the processed root and leaves are used in Ayurvedic practice for hair disorders and skin conditions. The roots taste like licorice and are used as a substitute for Yashtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra) in some regions.
Shukra Dushti Pusha Gunanaha
शुक्रदूषीपुष्प
Gynandropsis gynandra
Brief mention in the text of this plant's use in seminal disorders and related conditions.
Shunthi
शुण्ठी
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Shunthi is called Vishvabheshaja (universal medicine) because it is useful in almost all diseases. Unique among Katu drugs because it is Snigdha (unctuous) rather than Ruksha (dry), making it suitable even for Vata conditions. Fresh ginger (Adraka) has different properties.
Shyonaka
श्योनाक
Oroxylum indicum Vent.
Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum) is an important member of the Dashamula group (Brihat Panchamula -- five large root drugs). It is a tall tree found in sub-Himalayan tracts and forests. The root bark is the primary part used in medicine. The tree is also known as 'Broken Bones Plant' in English due to the appearance of its fallen pods. Its bark and root bark are bitter and astringent, used especially in managing diarrhea, dysentery, fevers, and inflammatory conditions. It is one of the key ingredients in Dashamularishta.
Silica/Silicate — Shilajatu Properties
शिलाजतु
Asphaltum (mineral pitch/bitumen)
Shilajatu (Shilajit) is a mineral exudate found oozing from rocks in the Himalayas during summer. Four types are described based on the rock source: Gold (Suvarna Shilajatu — reddish), Silver (Rajata — whitish), Copper (Tamra — bluish), and Iron (Loha — blackish/brownish). The iron type is the most commonly available and widely used. Shilajit is a supreme Rasayana and Yogavahi (enhances the action of other drugs). It is used in diabetes, urinary stones, urinary disorders, obesity, anemia, tuberculosis, and as a general rejuvenative. It is said that there is no curable disease in the universe that cannot be controlled or cured with Shilajit when administered at the proper time with suitable drugs. Dose: 1 Gunja to 1 Karsha. Verses: 101-110.
Silk Cotton / Kapasi / Tarpata Vriksha
तरपत्रवृक्ष
Thespesia lampas Dalz. & Gibs
Thespesia lampas is a wild cotton variety found in forests. Its root is used medicinally. The bark fiber is used for making rope. Properties are similar to cultivated cotton but less potent.
Silk Cotton Tree
शाल्मली
Bombax malabaricum DC.
Shalmali (Silk Cotton Tree/Semal) is a large thorny deciduous tree found throughout India. It grows up to 50-200 feet tall and has a buttressed trunk covered with conical prickles when young. The large red flowers appear in February-March when the tree is leafless. The gum (Mochras) is sweet, cooling, astringent and is one of the best Vrishya (aphrodisiac) drugs. The root is also used as Vrishya. The thorns of the tree are used as a poultice. The bark is mucilaginous, demulcent and used in dysentery and diarrhea. The gum is nutritive and used in weakness, seminal debility and leucorrhoea. The flowers are used in skin diseases. The cotton from seed pods is used for stuffing pillows. Chemical composition: The bark contains about 20-25% tannin, mucilage and resin. Dose: Gum (Mochras) 4-5 masha; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 28.
Silk Cotton Tree Flowers
शाल्मलीपुष्प
Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl.
Shalmali Pushpa (Silk Cotton Tree flowers) are large, bright red flowers that bloom before the leaves appear. The tree (Salmalia/Bombax) is large and deciduous. The flower buds are cooked as a vegetable. The dried flowers are used in bleeding disorders and as a tonic. The gum (Mocharas) exuded from the bark is astringent and used in diarrhea. The tree is thorny when young. Verse: referenced in Pushpa Varga.
Silver
रजत
Argentum (Ag)
Rajata (Silver) is described as the second major metal. Silver Bhasma is cooling, sweet, and is used in diseases of Pitta origin. It is a powerful Medhya (brain tonic) and is indicated in neurological disorders, memory loss, general debility, and urinary diseases. The text describes varieties of silver — Khara Rajata and Mlechha Rajata. Silver of good quality should be white, lustrous, soft, and malleable. It is purified using specific processes before incineration. Silver that is reddish or brittle is considered impure. Verses: 15-18.
Silver Amalgam/Hingula
हिंगुल
Cinnabar (HgS — Mercuric sulphide)
Hingula (Cinnabar) is the natural ore of mercury — a red mineral composed of mercuric sulphide. It is an important source of mercury for Rasa Shastra preparations. Hingula Bhasma is used in skin diseases, worm infestations, and wounds. It is also the source from which mercury is extracted through sublimation. Four types are described based on origin and quality. It must be properly purified before use. Verses: 103-106.
Silver Pyrites
रजतमाक्षिक
Iron Pyrites (FeS2)
Rajata Makshika (Iron Pyrites) is a silver-grey mineral. Its Bhasma is used in skin diseases and eye disorders. It has similar but milder properties compared to Swarna Makshika. Verses: 128.
Silver — Uses & Properties
रूप्य
Argentum (Ag)
Silver is described further with its therapeutic properties. Impure or improperly processed silver (Rajata that is not properly Bhasma) can cause various disorders. Properly prepared silver Bhasma is used in epilepsy, insanity, and diseases caused by Vata and Pitta imbalance. Verses: 15-19.
Annatto
सिन्दूरी
Bixa orellana Linn.
Sinduri (Bixa orellana) is a small tree grown for its seeds which yield the natural dye Annatto (Sindoor). The seeds are covered with a bright red-orange aril containing the dye Bixin. The flowers are pink or white. The seed paste is used as a coloring agent in food and cosmetics. The leaves and roots are also used medicinally. The tree is 3-6 feet tall with heart-shaped leaves. Annatto dye (v4-8%) is extracted from seed coating. It is used in fevers and wound healing. The dye has been used traditionally for body painting and as a sindoor (vermillion). Verse: 30-32.
Small Bakula
बड़ी मौलसिरी
Mimusops elengi Linn.
The larger variety of Bakula is mentioned with similar properties but considered more potent in its astringent action. It is used especially for dental problems. The bark is preferred for oral health preparations. Verse: 24.
Small Jamun
क्षुद्रजम्बू
Eugenia heyneana Wall.
Kshudra Jambu is the smaller variety of Jamun found near rivers and streams. Its properties are similar to the larger Jamun but it is smaller and considered less potent. The fruit is eaten fresh. Verse: 21.
Small Spurge
दुग्धिका
Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.
Chhoti Dudhi (Euphorbia thymifolia) is a small prostrate herb found throughout India at up to 4500 feet altitude. It exudes white milky latex when broken. The whole plant is used. It is useful in dysentery, diarrhea, and bleeding disorders. It is also applied on wounds and cuts. The plant has tiny opposite leaves arranged along reddish stems. It is one of the common folk medicines used across India. Verse: 291-296.
Smoke Gourd
अर्कपुष्पी
Neptunia oleracea Lour.
Neptunia oleracea is an aquatic sensitive plant, resembling Mimosa pudica but growing in water. It is found in marshy areas. The text mentions it as having astringent and cooling properties.
Snake Poison Properties
सर्पविष
Various snake venoms
The text describes snake poisons and their classification. Snakes are divided into Darvikara (hooded — cobra type) and Mandali (viper type) among others. The symptoms of different snake bites are described along with treatments. The section on poisonous snakes (Sarpa Visha) describes identification, symptoms, and antidotes using herbal and mineral remedies. Verses: 185-195.
Soap Nut Tree
अरिष्ट
Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.
Arishta (Soap Nut) is a large deciduous tree found in Northern India, particularly in sub-Himalayan tracts. The fruit pericarp (shell) contains saponins and is widely used as a natural soap for washing hair and clothes. Medicinally, the fruit is emetic and used in Vamana therapy. The fruit powder is used as nasal errhine (Shirovirechana). The saponin content gives it excellent cleansing properties. It is also used in epilepsy - the fruit is given with water. The fruit shells are used traditionally in washing delicate fabrics. Chemical analysis shows high saponin content. Dose: Churna 2-4 ratti; for Vamana as directed. Verse: 20.
Soapberry / Soapnut / Svarnpathri
स्वर्णपत्री
Svarnpathri is briefly mentioned. The name 'Sonapathri' suggests golden/yellow leaves. Limited information is available about this plant in the text.
Soma
सोम
Ephedra gerardiana (Wall) Stapf
Soma/Ephedra (Ephedra gerardiana) is discussed as one proposed identification for the Vedic Soma plant. The text provides detailed pharmacological information. The plant grows at high altitudes (7000-12000 feet) in the Himalayas. The stems contain l-ephedrine and d-l-ephedrine alkaloids (0.26-2.2%). It is a powerful bronchodilator - used extensively for asthma. It also has cardiac stimulant properties and can cause vasoconstriction. The text mentions its use in asthma (Shvasa), cough (Kasa), and as a cardiac stimulant. It can raise blood pressure and is useful in epidemic dropsy and left heart failure. Used in tincture form. Dose: Soma-somarasa dharana - 2-3 drops; extract powder 10-60 grains. Verse refs: pages 445-446.
Soma
सोमवल्ली
Sarcostemma sp.
The Soma plant (referenced in Vedic literature) is described in the text with various botanical identifications proposed by different scholars. It is one of the most debated plants in Ayurvedic history. The juice extracted from the plant was used in Vedic rituals and was considered a divine Rasayana. The text describes its identification challenges and multiple proposed candidates.
Soma Vriksha
सोमवृक्ष
Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.
Bauhinia tomentosa, the Yellow Bauhinia, is described as a yellow-flowered variety. It is more common in southern India and used similarly to other Bauhinia species for glandular swellings.
Somakalata
सोमक्षीरी
Sarcostemma brevistigma W. & A.
Somakalata is discussed as a continuation of the Soma plant description. The text notes that true Soma has become extremely rare and its exact botanical identity remains debated. Some identify it with Ephedra species. Verse ref: page 445.
Somalata
सोमलता
Sarcostemma brevistigma W. & A.
Somalata (Sarcostemma brevistigma) is described as the legendary Soma plant of Vedic fame. The text notes considerable debate about the true identity of Soma. Sarcostemma is a leafless, fleshy, twining climber. The stems yield a milky juice which was traditionally used to prepare Soma Rasa. It is sweet, astringent, light, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is described as intellect-promoting (Medhya), rejuvenative (Rasayana), cardiotonic (Hridya), and vitality-enhancing (Ojovardhaka). The text discusses extensively the mystical and medicinal significance of Soma. Various scholars have proposed different plants as the original Soma including Ephedra, Sarcostemma, and others. The juice was used in ancient Vedic rituals. Verse refs: pages 444-445.
Oroxylum
सोनापाठा
Oroxylum indicum Vent.
Sonapatha is described in the text as related to Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum). The bark is used in various Dashamula formulations. It is found in forests across India and its root bark is valued for anti-inflammatory and anti-diarrheal properties.
Sorrel
चूक
Rumex vesicarius Linn.
Chuka (Sorrel) is described as the last herb in the Haritakyadi Varga. It is a sour-tasting vegetable (Amla Shaka) used primarily as a digestive stimulant. The various types of Chuka (Shaka-Chuka, Amlavetas) are varieties of sour edible greens. It is predominantly sour in taste and hot in potency. It kindles digestive fire and is useful in loss of appetite and digestive disorders. This marks the end of the Haritakyadi Varga. Book reference: shloka 250-251.
Spanish Jasmine
चमेली
Jasminum grandiflorum Linn.
Chameli (Jasminum grandiflorum) is an important jasmine species used in perfumery and medicine. It is found across India growing as a large climbing shrub. The flowers are white, intensely fragrant, and bloom profusely. Chameli oil is one of the most valued attars. The flowers open at dusk releasing their sweet fragrance. It is used in skin diseases, eye disorders, and wounds. The leaves are used in dental problems. The plant flowers are larger than Mogra. Verse: 6-12, Pushpa Varga; also referenced in 24-26.
Spider Flower
हुरहुर
Cleome viscosa Linn.
Hurhur (Cleome viscosa) is described as a variant growing across India. It has sticky glandular hairs and yellow flowers. The seeds yield oil that is used medicinally. It is the primary Cleome species used. The seeds resemble mustard and have a strong odor. The plant has 5-petaled flowers and palmate leaves. The juice of leaves is used for ear pain. C. monophylla is also mentioned as a related species. Verse: 274.
Spider Plant
सपेदी
Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn.
Sapedi (Ophiorrhiza mungos) is found in forests of South India at altitudes up to 2000 feet. It is well known as an antidote for snake bites, hence the name 'mungos' (mongoose). The root is the main part used. The root is bitter and is used in fevers and as a poison antidote. Its Sanskrit synonym suggests its snake-repelling properties. Dose: Swarasa 24-80 drops; Churna 10-20 grains. Verse: 276.
Spiked Ginger Lily
गन्धपलाशी
Hedychium spicatum Ham. ex Smith
Kapur Kachri (Spiked Ginger Lily) is the rhizome of Hedychium spicatum, found in the Himalayan region. The text describes it as an aromatic rhizome with camphor-like fragrance. The rhizomes are used in incense, cosmetics, and medicines. The drug is pungent and bitter with heating potency. It is used for digestive disorders, cough, asthma, and worm infestations. The rhizome resembles small pieces of camphor when dried. The commentary mentions that Kaempferia galanga (Chandramula) is sometimes substituted for this drug but is distinct. The plant is found at moderate altitudes in the Himalayas. It is a valued ingredient in hair care formulations and aromatic preparations. The rhizomes yield an essential oil used in perfumery. Dose varies by preparation.
Spikenard
जटामांसी
Nardostachys jatamansi DC.
Jatamansi (Spikenard) is an important Himalayan herb found at elevations above 3000m. The rhizomes are the medicinally used part, characterized by hair-like fibers (jata) that give it its name. It is one of the most valued brain tonics (Medhya) in Ayurveda. The text describes it as bitter, astringent, and sweet with cooling potency. It alleviates all three doshas (Tridoshahara). The drug has a distinctive musky aroma and is grey in color. The text notes it grows in alpine Himalayan meadows from Kashmir eastward. Small and large root varieties exist, with brownish-grey color. The rhizome sends out 7-10 finger-length roots. The dried roots resemble matted hair. It is extensively used in epilepsy, hysteria, insomnia, and cardiac disorders. It improves complexion and promotes hair growth. Externally, the oil is applied to hair. An important ingredient in hair oils and brain tonics. The essential oil contains jatamansone, a valuable aromatic compound. Dose: 2-4 grams.
Sponge Gourd
देवदालीफल
Luffa echinata Roxb.
The fruit properties of Devadali are described separately. The fruits are used in specific formulations for jaundice, spleen disorders, and as a strong purgative. They should be used with caution due to their potent emetic and purgative actions. Used in Spastic constipation and Irritable colon (Colitis). Dose: 4-12 ratti.
Spotted Spurge
दुग्धिका
Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn.
Euphorbia hypericifolia is found in India at up to 4500 feet. It is a taller plant among Euphorbia species (0.010 tola proportion). Used similarly to other Euphorbia species for diarrhea and dysentery. Verse: 296.
Stephania
राजपाठा
Stephania hernandifolia; Cyclea peltata H.f. & T.
Rajapatha (Stephania hernandifolia / Cyclea peltata) is the larger variety of Patha. It has peltate (shield-shaped) leaves 4-5 inches in diameter. The roots are tuberous. The leaves are broadly round. It contains Saponin and is used interchangeably with Cissampelos pareira for digestive and febrifuge purposes.
Rock Foil
पाषाणभेदी
Saxifraga ligulata Wall.
Vatpashani (Saxifraga ligulata) is described on page 205 of the text. It is recognized for its ability to break down urinary stones. It grows in hilly and rocky regions of the Himalayas. The rhizome is the main medicinal part used. It is referenced in this varga as a useful herb for urinary tract disorders.
Stone Flowers
शैलेय
Parmelia perlata Ach.
Charila (Stone Flowers) is a lichen that grows on rocks and tree barks in hilly regions. The thallus is the used part, appearing as flat, leafy, greenish-grey growths on rocky surfaces. The text describes it as growing on stones and trees in mountainous regions. It absorbs moisture from the air and does not develop typical roots. The lichen has a bitter and astringent taste with cooling potency. It is used in skin diseases for complexion improvement, in bleeding disorders, and as a cooling agent. It is also used in spice blends and as a flavoring agent in cooking. Being an aromatic lichen, it features in many compound formulations for skin care. It pacifies Pitta and Kapha. Dose: 2-4 grams.
Strychnine
कुपिलु
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.
Kupilu/Kuchala (Nux Vomica) is the seed of Strychnos nux-vomica, containing the highly toxic alkaloids strychnine and brucine. After proper Shodhana (purification by boiling in cow's urine or milk and removing the seed coat), it is used in Vata disorders, paralysis, facial palsy, joint disorders, and digestive weakness. The purification process detoxifies the alkaloids significantly. It is a powerful nerve stimulant in small doses. Excessive dose causes tetanic convulsions and death. Dose: 1-2 Ratti after Shodhana. Verses: 166-170.
Sub-Poisons — Classification
उपविष
Various sub-poisons
The Upavisha (sub-poisons) are classified separately from the Mahavisha (great poisons). Seven Upavisha are listed: (1) Madara (Calotropis) milk, (2) Dhoora (Datura) seeds, (3) Kalihari (Gloriosa) tuber, (4) Kaner (Nerium oleander), (5) Chunchi (Abrus precatorius), (6) Akoshtha/Bhallataka (Semecarpus), and (7) Khattar (a mineral). These sub-poisons are less toxic than Mahavisha but still require purification. Their properties, symptoms of poisoning, and treatments are described. The chapter concludes with the note that proper knowledge of both Visha and Upavisha is essential for a Rasavaidya (Rasa Shastra practitioner). Verses: 206.
Sugandha Bala -- Pavonia variety
सुगन्धबाला
Pavonia odorata Willd.
This is an additional reference to Sugandhabala/Hrivera in the later part of the Karpuradi Varga, expanding on the earlier entry. The text notes it as a valuable aromatic root used for cooling and breast milk purification.
Sugandha Kokila
सुगन्धकोकिला
Cinnamomum tamala (bark variety)
Sugandha Kokila is described as an aromatic substance related to the cinnamon/laurel family, used in formulations for cough and digestive disorders.
Sugandhabala
सुगन्धबाला
Pavonia odorata Willd.
Sugandhabala is the root of Pavonia odorata, a fragrant plant found in western and southern India. The roots are aromatic and cooling. The drug is valued for its Pitta-pacifying properties and is used in fever, burning sensation, excessive thirst, and bleeding disorders. It is a common ingredient in cooling and refreshing Ayurvedic preparations.
Sugarcane and Date varieties
इक्षु
Saccharum officinarum Linn.
Properties of Sugarcane and its products (Gur/Jaggery, Khand, Sharkara/Sugar, Misri/Crystal sugar) are described. Sugarcane juice is sweet, cooling and nutritive. Jaggery (Gur) is heating and increases blood. Sugar (Sharkara) is cooling and used in Pitta disorders. Misri (rock candy) is the best form - it is cooling, Tridoshahara and used in medicinal preparations. The text describes the progressive purification from cane juice to Misri as increasingly beneficial. Referenced in end notes of the Varga.
Sughanda Patra
सुगन्धपत्र
Varied aromatic leaf drugs
The text groups several fragrant leaf drugs under this heading toward the end of the Karpuradi Varga. These are various aromatic leaves used in fumigation (dhupa), perfumery, and medicine.
Sughanda Pushpa -- Aromatic Substances Summary
सुगन्धिद्रव्य
Various aromatic drugs
The Karpuradi Varga concludes with a summary section on aromatic drug combinations and formulations. The text describes various combinations of the aromatic substances described in the chapter, their collective uses in fumigation (Dhupa), cosmetics, and therapeutics. The colophon states: 'इति श्रीमिश्रलटकतनयश्रीमिश्रभाविरचिते भावप्रकाशे वर्गप्रकरणे द्वितीयः कर्पूरादिवर्गः समाहः ॥ २ ॥' -- Thus ends the second chapter, Karpuradi Varga, of Bhavaprakash composed by Sri Bhavamishra, son of Sri Mishra Lataka.
Suhagra
स्तूलदूपा
Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.
This variety of Euphorbia is briefly mentioned in the text alongside other Snuhi species. It is a pencil-thick, cylindrical-branched succulent shrub. The latex is used similarly to other Euphorbia species for purgative and anti-parasitic actions.
Sulphur
गन्धक
Sulphur (S)
Gandhaka (Sulphur) is described as 'Rasapriya' — beloved of Mercury. It is essential in Rasa Shastra formulations as the primary companion of mercury. Four types are described based on color: yellow (best), red, white, and black. Purified Gandhaka is used in skin diseases (especially scabies and ringworm), chronic fevers, worm infestations, and as a Rasayana. Combined with mercury, it forms Kajjali. Externally it is applied in various skin conditions. Gandhaka must be purified through the Dalana process (melting and pouring through cloth into milk/ghee) before use. Verses: 58-62.
Supari
सुपारी
Areca catechu Linn.
Additional properties and varieties of Supari (Betel Nut) described in the fruit section, including different processing methods and their effects on properties. Verses continued.
Supari Palm
खर्जूर
Phoenix dactylifera Linn.
Kharjura (Date/Chhuhara) is the fruit of the Date Palm widely cultivated in arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat and parts of Pakistan. The fruit is one of the most nutritive natural foods. Dry dates (Chhuhara) are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine and cooking. They are sweet, heavy, nourishing and strengthening. Dates are excellent for increasing weight, curing debility, and as an aphrodisiac. Fresh dates are perishable; dried dates are commercially important. The fruit is rich in iron, making it useful in anemia. Dates are used in Lehya (confections) and Modaka preparations. They are given to convalescing patients and in weakness. Date palm also yields toddy from the inflorescence. Chemical analysis shows 60-70% sugars and significant minerals. Dose: 2-4 dates daily; or as directed. Verses: 44.
Supari variety
सुगन्धिपूग
Areca catechu varieties
Scented varieties of Betel Nut prepared with clove, cardamom and other spices. These are chewed as mouth fresheners after meals. They have digestive and mouth-cleansing properties. Verse mentioned.
Sveta Punarnava
श्वेत पुनर्नवा
Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.
Sveta Punarnava (White Punarnava) is the white-flowered variety. The text discusses the botanical confusion between Punarnava varieties - Rakta (red, B. diffusa) and Sveta (white, often identified as Trianthema). Both have diuretic and anti-edema properties. The text notes the importance of proper identification. Verse ref: page 422.
Svetasariva
श्वेतसारिवा
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.
Svetasariva is described as the white-rooted variety of Sariva, having similar properties but considered milder. The text notes that both white and dark varieties are used interchangeably in practice. Verse ref: page 427.
Sweet Lime
मधुनिम्बूक
Citrus limettioides Tanaka
Madhu Nimbuka (Sweet Lime/Mosambi) is a popular citrus fruit with sweet, mildly sour juice. It is widely consumed as fresh juice across India. The juice is cooling, thirst-quenching and easy to digest. It is recommended for patients recovering from illness as it is nourishing and easily digestible. Sweet lime juice is one of the most commonly sold street juices in India. Dose: As food/juice. Verse: 55.
Sweet Orange
नारङ्गी
Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck
Sweet Orange (Mosambi) is distinguished from the sour varieties. It is sweet, cooling and nourishing. The juice is widely consumed and recommended for patients. It is one of the best fruits for convalescence. Dose: As food. Verse: 56.
Kaner
करवीर
Nerium odorum Soland.
Kaner (Nerium odorum), the Sweet-scented Oleander, is a well-known ornamental and medicinal plant. The text describes it as having red and white flowering varieties. The root, bark, leaves, and flowers all have medicinal uses. It contains cardiac glycosides making it useful in heart conditions when used in proper doses. It is classified as Visha (poisonous) and must be used with extreme caution. Externally, the root paste is applied for skin diseases (Kushtha) and parasitic skin infections. The plant is described as being bitter, hot, and sharp, effective against Kapha and Vata disorders.
Talisapatra
तालीसपत्र
Taxus baccata Linn.
Talisapatra is the leaf of Taxus baccata (Himalayan Yew), an evergreen tree found in the Himalayan region at 2000-3600m altitude. The tree grows up to 10,000 feet and the leaves are the primary medicinally used part. The leaves are dark green, needle-like, and arranged in two rows on the branches. The text describes it as pungent and sweet with heating potency. It is one of the most important drugs for respiratory disorders in Ayurveda -- cough, asthma, hiccup, and bronchitis. The drug contains Taxine, an alkaloid, which has been the subject of modern research for anticancer properties (Taxol). The leaves are 1-1.5 inches long, 1/8th inch broad, flat, and glossy green above with pale green below. The cones are berry-like. It also relieves anorexia and vomiting. It is used in many classical formulations like Talisadi Churna (a famous cough remedy). It has bronchodilator and expectorant properties. The bark and wood are also sometimes used. Dose: 1-2 grams.
Talisapatra variety 2
तालीसपत्र
Abies webbiana Lindl.
This is the Abies webbiana (Himalayan Silver Fir) variety of Talisapatra. The commentary discusses that some authorities use Abies webbiana or Abies pindrow as Talisapatra instead of Taxus baccata. The leaves are needle-like, 1-2 inches long, and arranged spirally on the branches. The cones are 4-5 inches long and erect. The tree is found in the Himalayan region at 2500-4000m. Leaves of Abies pindrow (Pindrow Fir) are also used. The drug has similar therapeutic actions for cough and respiratory disorders. The text notes the tree is tall (150 feet or more) with conical shape. The needles have two white bands beneath.
Talmakhana
कोकिलाक्ष
Hygrophila spinosa T. And.
Talmakhana (Hygrophila spinosa / Asteracantha longifolia) is a thorny aquatic herb growing in marshy and wet areas. The seeds, roots, and whole plant are used medicinally. It is described as sweet, bitter, heavy, unctuous, slimy, and cold in potency. It is one of the most valued herbs for male reproductive health - acting as a potent aphrodisiac (Vrishya) and strength-giver (Balya). It is useful in urinary disorders, kidney stones, impotence, general debility, and bleeding disorders. The seeds are particularly valued and contain digestive enzymes (Diastase, Lipase, Protease). The plant has spiny leaves and grows abundantly near water bodies. Dose: seeds 4-8 masha; roots 2-4 masha; decoction 2-4 tola. Verse refs: pages 416-417.
Tamarind
तिन्तिडी
Tamarindus indica Linn.
Tintidi (Tamarind/Imli) is a large evergreen tree found throughout India. The fruit pulp is extremely sour and is one of the most important souring agents in Indian cooking. The pulp is rich in Tartaric acid (about 10%). The ripe fruit is used in chutneys, drinks and cooking. The seeds are roasted and eaten or ground into flour. The seed coat yields a gum used industrially. The leaf extract is used in liver disorders. The bark decoction is used as a gargle. The fruit is cooling when taken with sugar and water. The wood is hard and durable. Tamarind is used in various Ayurvedic formulations as a souring agent. Chemical analysis shows high tartaric acid, citric acid and potassium bitartrate content. Dose: Pulp as food flavoring; seed powder 1-2 masha. Verses: 48.
Tape Grass
शैवार
Vallisneria spiralis Linn.
Vallisneria spiralis is a submerged aquatic plant with ribbon-like leaves. Found in freshwater habitats. The female flowers rise to the surface on long spiral stalks. It is used as an astringent in traditional medicine. The plant is dioecious. Verse: 8 (mentioned in the context of aquatic plants).
Tejbal
तेजोवती
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.
Properties similar to Tumburu. Used for dental problems and digestive stimulation.
Terms with Five Meanings
पञ्चार्थकानिनामानि
Terms with five distinct referents. These are relatively uncommon. Examples include: 1. Arjuna (अर्जुन) — (1) Terminalia arjuna tree, (2) White color, (3) Peacock, (4) Name of a Pandava prince, (5) a type of gem. 2. Vira (वीर) — (1) Brave/hero, (2) a type of grass, (3) Pepper, (4) a type of poison, (5) Sacrifice. The section lists terms where a single name has expanded to five different uses across Ayurvedic and general Sanskrit literature.
Terms with Four Meanings
चतुरर्थकानिनामानि
Terms with four distinct referents. Representative examples: 1. Shvetodumba (श्वेतोदुम्ब) — Four different referents including a type of fig and other plants. 2. Renuka (रेणुका) — (1) A spice plant, (2) Pollen, (3) Earth/sand, (4) a type of ornament. 3. Vetasapura (वेतसपुर) — Four referents including a tree and location names. 4. Karaskar (करस्कर) — Four referents in different medicinal contexts. 5. Sthira (स्थिर) — (1) Bala (Sida cordifolia), (2) Firm/stable, (3) a type of metal, (4) Dhruva (pole star). This section has fewer entries than the two-meaning and three-meaning sections, as terms with four distinct meanings are less common.
Terms with Seven or More Meanings
सप्तार्थकबह्वर्थकनामानि
Terms with seven or more meanings. These represent the most polysemous terms in Ayurvedic nomenclature. Examples include: 1. Bala (बल) — Has multiple meanings including Sida cordifolia plant, strength/power, military forces, a young child, and several other referents. 2. Rasa (रस) — Has many meanings including juice, taste, mercury, essence, emotion, and several more. These highly polysemous terms are the most prone to misidentification and require the greatest care in textual interpretation.
Terms with Six Meanings
षडर्थकनामानि
Terms with six distinct referents. These are quite rare. The section contains a small number of entries where a single drug name or term has been applied to six different substances or concepts across various texts.
Terms with Three Meanings
त्र्यर्थकानिनामानि
This section lists terms that have three distinct meanings. These present even greater scope for confusion in textual interpretation. Representative examples: 1. Shweta (श्वेत) — (1) White color, (2) Shweta variety of Aparajita plant, (3) Karpura (camphor). 2. Peetaka (पीतक) — (1) Yellow color, (2) a type of snake, (3) Haridra (turmeric). 3. Suvarna (सुवर्ण) — (1) Gold, (2) Dhattura, (3) Nagakesara. 4. Arista (अरिष्ट) — (1) Nimba (neem), (2) a type of medicated wine, (3) bad omen/sign. 5. Amrita (अमृत) — (1) Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), (2) nectar/immortality, (3) ghee. 6. Jyotishmati (ज्योतिष्मती) — (1) Celastrus paniculatus, (2) fire, (3) intelligence. 7. Madhu (मधु) — (1) Honey, (2) Yashtimadhu/Licorice, (3) Spring season. The section contains several dozen three-meaning terms. Each entry lists all three possible referents, with the commentary providing additional context for disambiguation.
Terms with Two Meanings
द्व्यर्थकानिनामानि
This section lists drug names that have exactly two meanings. These are words that refer to two different substances. The section is introduced with a verse explaining the format: each term is listed followed by its two possible referents. Representative examples include: 1. Krumuka (क्रुमुक) — (1) Supari (betel nut), Sahadura (companion), Gobhura (cow dung). 2. Shurasa (शुरस) — (1) Chokikalapatr, Gobhura, Vilambaka-vibheshana. 3. Kulaka (कुलक) — Paasha and Roti (bread), or a type of bond. 4. Koshakari (कोशकारी) — Netruja and Kamakari. 5. Dripatika (दृपटिक) — Vabani, Ajamoda. 6. Sroneyaka (श्रोणेयक) — Adhyavanik, Piperumula. 7. Madyapaka (मद्यपक) — Abhijishak, Pippalimoola. 8. Rushaka (रुषक) — Galodaka, Moushala and Medhaka. 9. Mepulika (मेपुलिक) — Mula, Nalavello. 10. Mayuralika (मयूरलिक) — Mula, Nadivello and Madhuvrishchika. The section contains approximately 115 entries of two-meaning terms organized in a systematic verse format. Each entry gives the polysemous term and then lists both meanings (typically the common name or Hindi equivalent is provided in the commentary). Verse references: 1-2 of the Dvyarthaka section.
Thalictrum
ब्रायमाण
Thalictrum foliolosum D.C.
Thalictrum foliolosum is described as a source of Berberine-rich roots. The roots are yellow due to high Berberine content (about 2.5%). It grows at altitudes of 5000-6000 feet in the Himalayas and can yield up to 9000 feet. The text relates it to Mamira (Coptis teeta) which is another Berberine-containing plant used for eye disorders. Thalictrum root is used as a substitute for Mamira. It is particularly valued for eye diseases (Netra Roga), fevers, and blood purification. The yellow root contains Isorhamnetin (Quercetin derivative) and Kaempferol. Verse refs: pages 432-433.
Kasa
कास
Saccharum spontaneum Linn.
Kasa (Saccharum spontaneum) is a tall grass growing wild in many parts of India. It is similar to sugarcane but thinner. The roots are sweet and cooling. It is used as a diuretic, galactagogue, and in bleeding disorders. The root decoction is given in urinary complaints and burning micturition. The grass grows commonly near water and in waste lands. Dose: root decoction 1-2 tola.
Thuhar
त्रिधारा स्नुही
Euphorbia antiquorum Linn.
Tridhara Snuhi (Euphorbia antiquorum) is the triangular spurge variety with three-ridged stems. It is found in dry regions of India. Like Snuhi, its latex is used medicinally as a purgative and for skin conditions. The text describes it as having similar but somewhat milder properties compared to E. neriifolia.
Thunbergia
काकनासा
Thunbergia alata Boj.
Thunbergia alata is described as a variety of Kakanasa. It is a climbing ornamental vine. The plant is used medicinally for worm infestations and swellings. The text mentions it as having attractive flowers. Verse ref: page 441.
Tilak Tree
तिलक
Wendlandia exerta DC.
Tilaka (Wendlandia exerta) is a medium-sized tree found in tropical regions of India at up to 4000 feet. The small flowers are white and arranged in dense terminal panicles. The tree has rough bark. The bark and flowers are used in traditional medicine as astringent and wound-healing agents. The plant has 4-9 x 1-2.5 inch leaves. Verse: 49.
Tin
वंग
Stannum (Sn)
Vanga (Tin) is the fourth metal. It is of two types — Khuraka and Mishraka. Good tin is white, soft, and produces a crackling sound when bent. Vanga Bhasma is primarily indicated in urinary disorders (Prameha), diabetes, urethral discharges, and obesity. It is also used as an aphrodisiac in male sexual disorders. Improperly processed tin causes skin diseases and loss of appetite. Verses: 22-23.
Tintali
तिंतली
Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam.
Tintali is a variety of Snuhi described as smaller in size. Like the larger Snuhi, its latex has purgative properties. It is used in similar conditions - Vata and Kapha disorders, constipation, and worm infestations, though it is considered somewhat milder in its purgative action.
Toddy Palm
ताल
Borassus flabellifer Linn.
Tala (Toddy Palm/Palmyra Palm) is one of the tallest palms found in India, growing up to 70-100 feet. The palm inflorescence is tapped for toddy (palm wine) which is sweet when fresh but quickly ferments. The fruit pulp is sweet and eaten fresh. The endosperm (ice-apple/Nungu) is a popular summer delicacy. Palm jaggery (Gur) is made from the sap and is nutritive. The toddy when fermented becomes alcoholic. Fresh toddy is sweet and nutritive, while fermented toddy is intoxicating. The fruit fibers are used as brushes. The leaves are used for thatching and making fans. Dose: As food; toddy fresh only. Verses: 14.
Toon Tree
तूण
Cedrela toona Roxb.
Tuna (Toon) is a large deciduous tree found in the Himalayas and throughout India up to 4000 feet elevation. The bark is astringent, febrifuge and used in leprosy and ulcers. The flowers are used in dysentery. The bark contains tannins and yields a reddish gum. The wood is valuable timber (Indian Mahogany). The bark decoction is used as an astringent wash. The bark contains Calcium and about 0.55% of a pale-colored gum. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; bark powder 1-2 masha. Verse: 25.
Touch-me-not Tree
लज्जालु
Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC.
Biophytum sensitivum is described as a small sensitive plant found in southern India. It has pinnate leaves arranged like a small palm tree. It is used in similar conditions as Mimosa pudica. It is found in tropical regions of India. Verse: mentioned alongside other sensitive plants.
Tree Cotton / Upland Cotton / Kaparpathri
कपार्पसी
Gossypium arboreum Linn.
Gossypium arboreum is the tree cotton variety described as having similar properties to G. herbaceum but growing taller (8-10 feet). The seeds and root bark are used similarly. One cotton boll produces fibers 4-5 inches long. The tree cotton variety is more commonly found in Indian gardens and fields.
Patala Bada
पाटला
Stereospermum chelonoides DC.
This variety of Patala (Stereospermum chelonoides) is described alongside the other Dashamula herbs. It is used as a substitute or complement to Stereospermum suaveolens in the Brihat Panchamula group. The root bark is the main medicinal part used in Dashamula formulations.
Tryarthini Nama — Three-Meaning Glossary Entries
त्र्यर्थिनीनामसूची
Extended list of three-meaning terms with their complete referents: - Kasturi (कस्तूरी) — (1) Musk deer secretion, (2) a variety of banana, (3) a type of plant (Abelmoschus moschatus). - Pashana (पाषाण) — (1) Stone/mineral, (2) Pashanbheda plant (Bergenia ligulata), (3) a type of poison. - Eranda (एरण्ड) — (1) Castor plant (Ricinus communis), (2) a type of elephant, (3) a region name. - Vacha (वचा) — (1) Acorus calamus (sweet flag), (2) speech/word, (3) a type of promise. - Jivaka (जीवक) — (1) Malaxis acuminata (a medicinal orchid), (2) living being, (3) a type of gem/stone. - Musta (मुस्त) — (1) Cyperus rotundus (nagarmotha), (2) fist/clenched hand, (3) a type of grass. - Ela (एला) — (1) Cardamom, (2) Perfume/fragrance, (3) a measurement unit.
Tulsi varieties
राम तुलसी
Ocimum gratissimum Linn.
Ram Tulsi (Ocimum gratissimum) is the larger-leaved variety of Tulsi. It has bigger, broader leaves compared to the common Tulsi. Its properties are similar but it is considered less potent. It is used similarly for respiratory and fever complaints. The leaves are more coarsely textured. Verse: 32 (mentioned as a variety).
Tejbal
तुम्बुरु
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.
Bark and fruits used. Applied locally on teeth for toothache. Named 'Toothache Tree' for dental use.
Nisoth
त्रिवृत
Operculina turpethum; Ipomoea turpethum R. Br.
Trivrit/Nisoth (Operculina turpethum) is one of the most important purgative drugs in Ayurveda. The root is the main medicinal part. It is a large climbing plant with milky latex. The roots are long and tuberous, up to 3000 feet altitude. The root bark is the potent part while the inner woody core is discarded. Two varieties are described: Shveta (white - preferred) and Krishna (black - more drastic). The white variety is considered milder and suitable for Pitta conditions, while the black variety is more drastic. It is the drug of choice for Virechana (therapeutic purgation) in Panchakarma. The root contains Turpethin (4-10% resin) as the active purgative principle. It is extensively used in Pitta-Kapha conditions, skin diseases, and constipation. The purgation produced is gentle compared to Jalap but effective. The root bark dried and powdered is the common form used. The milky juice oxidizes brown on exposure. Dose: powder 3-5 masha; should be given with warm water or milk.
Two-Meaning Terms — Extended List
द्व्यर्थकनामसूची
Additional two-meaning terms from the extensive list include: - Asmantaka (अश्मन्तक) — Vinaypatrika and Kamnalika. - Kulika (कुलिक) — refers to both a type of serpent and a plant. - Mayuprishtha (मयूपृष्ठ) — Barley preparation and a medicinal plant. - Vrikshadani (वृक्षदानी) — A climbing parasitic plant and an axe/cutting instrument. - Bruhati (बृहती) — refers to both Solanum indicum and 'large' as a qualifier. - Haridra (हरिद्रा) — while commonly known as turmeric, in certain contexts can refer to Daruharidra (Berberis). - Chavya (चव्य) — refers to both Piper retrofractum and Piper chaba. - Kataka (कटक) — refers to both the clearing nut tree (Strychnos potatorum) and a bracelet/zone. - Tandula (तण्डुल) — rice grain and a type of insect secretion. - Padma (पद्म) — lotus flower and a type of serpent. Many more terms follow this pattern, providing crucial disambiguation for pharmacologists and practitioners.
Umbrella Thorn
श्वेतखदिर
Acacia suma Kurg.
Shveta Khadira (White Cutch) is a variety of Khadira with lighter colored bark and heartwood. It grows in dry regions and yields white or pale colored extract. Its properties are similar to Khadira but it is also considered Medhya (intellect promoting). The bark and heartwood are used medicinally. It is used in skin diseases, worm infestations and for improving memory. Dose: Kwatha 1-2 tola. Verse: 16.
Upayogini Nama-List: Commonly Confused Drug Names
उपयोगिनीनामसूची
This subsection focuses on drug names that are most commonly confused in clinical practice and pharmacy. Key disambiguation entries include: - Ashwagandha (अश्वगन्धा) — Withania somnifera vs. other plants sometimes called by this name. - Brahmi (ब्राह्मी) — Bacopa monnieri vs. Centella asiatica (both called Brahmi in different regions). - Shankhapushpi (शंखपुष्पी) — Multiple plants known by this name in different regions including Convolvulus pluricaulis, Evolvulus alsinoides, and Clitoria ternatea. - Tulasi (तुलसी) — Different varieties of Ocimum (Krishna Tulasi, Rama Tulasi, Vana Tulasi). - Guggulu (गुग्गुलु) — Commiphora mukul vs. Commiphora wightii and other Commiphora species. These practical disambiguation notes are critical for pharmacy practice.
Vacha
वचा
Acorus calamus Linn.
One of the most important Medhya (brain tonic) drugs in Ayurveda. The rhizome is the part used. Grows near water bodies, marshes, and swamps.
Vaijayanti
वैजयन्ती
Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.
Vaijayanti is described as a shrub with small yellow flowers, found near water bodies. It is used as an anthelmintic and in fevers. The leaves and flowers are both medicinal.
Vanda
वन्दा
Not clearly specified (Vanda species)
Vanda (orchid) is described in the context of bone-healing and anti-swelling herbs. The epiphytic orchid grows on tree trunks. Its roots and stems are used medicinally. It is traditionally used to promote fracture healing (like Hadjod) and reduce swellings. Also mentioned as an antidote to certain poisons. Verse ref: page 449.
Rasna
रास्ना
Ficus species (various)
Rasna is discussed in the context of anti-rheumatic herbs. The text notes botanical confusion between Rasna identifications - some use Vanda orchid species while others use Pluchea lanceolata or Alpinia galanga. It is primarily a Vata-alleviating herb useful in joint disorders and swellings. Verse ref: page 433.
Vanharidra
वनहरिद्रा
Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
Similar to common turmeric but more aromatic. Used primarily in cosmetics and skin care. The rhizome smells like mango (hence Mango ginger in some references, though that is more specifically Curcuma amada).
Bamboo Manna
वंशलोचन
Bambusa arundinacea Willd.
Siliceous deposit inside bamboo internodes. White, crystalline, highly valued. Key ingredient in Sitopaladi Churna.
Air Potato
वाराहीकन्द
Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.
Varahikand (Dioscorea bulbifera) is described as a tuber with strength-promoting and aphrodisiac properties. The tuber is the main medicinal part. It produces aerial bulbils (air potatoes). The plant is found in forests across India.
Varshabhu
वर्षाभू
Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.
Varshabhu (Trianthema portulacastrum) is described as a separate herb sometimes confused with Punarnava. It is a prostrate, succulent herb that grows in rainy season in sandy and marshy areas. The text notes it has diuretic and anti-edema properties similar to Punarnava but is considered a different plant. Various organ-specific measurements are given (leaf, root sizes). It is used in edema, digestive disorders, and urinary complaints. Verse refs: page 422.
Varungi Water Lily
वारिपर्णी
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f.
Variparnee is described as the Indian water lily variety with smaller flowers than the Sacred Lotus. It grows in shallow ponds and slow-moving waters. The flowers are blue to purple in color. It is used similarly to other water lilies for its cooling and cardiac tonic properties.
Vasaka
वासक (भेद)
Adhatoda beddomei C.B. Clarke
Adhatoda beddomei is listed as another species of the Vasaka/Adusa plant described as 'Adyeshtipur Vasaka'. It shares properties with the primary Adhatoda vasica species and is used for similar respiratory conditions.
Patha
पाठा
Cissampelos pareira Linn.
Patha (Cissampelos pareira) is a well-known climbing plant used extensively in Ayurveda. The root is the main part used. Two types of Patha are described: Rajpatha (large Patha = Cyclea peltata or Cyclea burmanni) and Laghupatha (small Patha = Cissampelos pareira). Patha is one of the important Deepaniya (appetizer) drugs. The root is bitter and pungent with hot potency. It is used in digestive disorders, diarrhoea, fevers, piles, and urinary complaints. It is described as having heart-shaped or kidney-shaped leaves. The stem is slender and twining. The plant climbs using leaf tendrils. The root contains bitter alkaloids. It is an important ingredient in many classical Ayurvedic formulations for digestive disorders. Rajapatha (Cyclea peltata) has leaves 3-5 inches round, while Laghupatha is smaller. Both contain Saponin. Dose: root powder 1-2 masha; decoction 1-2 tola.
Vetiver
उशीर
Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash
Ushira (Vetiver) is the fragrant root of Vetiveria zizanioides, widely found throughout India. The roots are extensively used for their cooling and aromatic properties. Khus-khus curtains made from the roots are used for cooling in summer. The essential oil (Vetiver oil) is valuable in perfumery. In Ayurveda, it is one of the best cooling drugs, used in burning sensation, excessive thirst, fever, and bleeding disorders. It pacifies Pitta and Kapha. The roots are woven into screens and mats. The drug is used in formulations for urinary disorders, skin diseases, and as a general coolant. It also removes body odor. Dose: 3-6 grams.
Baheda
विभीतकी
Terminalia belerica Roxb.
Vibhitaka (Baheda) is the second ingredient of Triphala. The fruit pulp is used medicinally. The seed oil is useful in skin diseases and hair growth. The seed itself is avoided internally as it may cause nausea.
Vidanga
विडंग
Embelia ribes Burm.
Prime Krimighna (anthelmintic) drug. Especially effective against tapeworms. Fruit resembles black pepper. Dose: 4-8g with honey or buttermilk.
Vidari
विदारी
Pueraria tuberosa DC.
Vidari (Pueraria tuberosa) is one of the foremost Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Jivaniya (life-promoting) drugs in Ayurveda. It produces very large tuberous roots that can weigh several kilograms. The tuber is white-fleshed, starchy, and sweet. The plant is a strong twining climber. It belongs to the Leguminosae family and is related to Kudzu. The root tuber is the main medicinal part. Vidari is specifically mentioned as a Brumhana (bulk-promoting/nourishing) drug - it increases body weight, strength, and vitality. It is extensively used in Kshaya (wasting diseases), sexual debility, post-partum recovery, and as a nutritive tonic. The tuber is also edible and consumed as food in tribal areas. Related but distinct is Ipomoea digitata (also called Vidari Kanda by some). The text also mentions Trichosanthes cordata (Kshira Vidari). Several species in the Dioscoreaceae family are related. Dose: tuber powder 5-10 masha; with milk.
Ipomoea
विदारीकन्द
Ipomoea digitata Linn.
Ipomoea digitata is another plant called Vidari Kanda. It is a large climber with tuberous roots exuding milky juice when cut. The tubers are very large and fleshy. This species belongs to Convolvulaceae (morning glory family) and is distinct from Pueraria tuberosa. The tuber contains about 10% resin. It is used similarly as Vrishya, Balya, and Stanyajanana. The milky latex is a distinguishing feature. Dose: tuber powder 5-10 masha.
Vidarikanda
विदारी
Additional Vidari varieties are discussed in the text, noting the botanical confusion between Pueraria tuberosa, Ipomoea digitata, and various Dioscorea species all called 'Vidari'. The text acknowledges multiple plants being used under this name.
Vidhara
विदारी
Ipomoea petaloidea Chois.
Vidhara / Vidari (Ipomoea petaloidea) is described as a large tuber-bearing creeper. The tuber is the main medicinal part, and is sweet, heavy, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is one of the important Jeevaniya (vitalizing) herbs. The text describes it as nourishing (Brimhana), strength-giving (Balya), and aphrodisiac (Vrishya). It is useful in conditions of debility, wasting diseases, urinary disorders, and for promoting lactation. The tuber can grow very large. Verse ref: pages 408-409. Note: Vidhara is also associated with Argyreia speciosa in some texts (see separate entry).
Vidhara
वृद्धदारक
Argyreia speciosa Sweet.
Vriddhadaraka (Argyreia speciosa) is identified as another variety of Vidhara. It is a large, woody, climbing shrub with beautiful silver-hairy leaves reaching up to 1000 feet in some descriptions. The roots are thick and fleshy, whitish inside. The text describes it as sweet, heavy, unctuous and hot in potency. It is used for rejuvenation (Rasayana), increasing strength (Balya), aphrodisiac purposes (Vrishya), and promoting intellect (Medhya). The root has a white milky sap. It is used in male infertility, general debility, and nervous disorders. Verse refs: pages 409.
Violet
बनफ़्शा
Ionidium suffruticosum Ging.
Banafsha (Viola/Ionidium) is described as a fragrant purple flower used in medicine. It is found in the Himalayan regions. The flowers and roots are used medicinally. It is particularly beneficial in respiratory conditions, fevers, and as a gentle laxative. The flower syrup is used in coughs and colds. It has cooling and soothing properties. Verse: 12.
Vishalaa
विशाला
Trichosanthes palmata Roxb.
Vishalaa (Trichosanthes palmata) is a large-fruited creeper described among the cucurbit family. It is used as a purgative herb and is helpful in reducing swelling and fevers. The fruit and root are the medicinal parts used. Verse ref: page 405.
Walking Fern
मयूरशिखा
Adiantum caudatum Linn.
Adiantum caudatum is found in all warm areas with moist conditions. The fronds are drooping and pinnate. It is used for hair problems and cough. The fern has characteristic black, wiry stipes. Also used as an expectorant. Found at 8-18 inches length. Dose: Kvatha. Verse: 289.
Walnut
अक्षोट
Juglans regia Linn.
Akshota (Walnut) is a large deciduous tree found in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and other Himalayan regions. The kernel is sweet, oily and nutritive. It is considered brain-shaped and is one of the best brain foods. The kernel is eaten raw or used in sweets. The oil is used in skin care. The bark is astringent. Walnuts are rich in omega-3 fatty acids and protein. The green fruit husk yields a brown dye. The shell is very hard. Dose: 3-5 walnuts daily. Verse: 40.
Water Chestnut
श्रृङ्गाटक
Trapa bispinosa Roxb.
Shringataka (Water Chestnut/Singhada) is an aquatic plant found in ponds and lakes throughout India. The fruit has horned projections (hence the name 'Singhada' from Shringa = horn). The kernel is white, starchy and sweet. It is eaten raw, boiled or dried into flour (Singhade ka Atta) which is used during fasting. The fruit is highly nutritive, cooling and aphrodisiac. The flour is used as a substitute for cereals during religious fasts. It is particularly useful in debility, weakness and as a nutritive food. The fruit is seasonal, available in winter. Dose: As food. Verses: 33.
Water Hyacinth
जलकुम्भी
Eichhornia crassipes Solms
Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth) is mentioned as a modern invasive plant in Indian waterways. Its inflated petioles help it float. The beautiful blue-purple flowers arise in spikes. It was introduced from Brazil and has become a problematic weed. The funnel-shaped flowers are 1-2.5 inches across with lilac-blue color. The plant contains Carotene in its leaves. While it is problematic ecologically, some medicinal uses are attributed including its use in animal fodder. The commentary notes its rapid spread. Verse: 5 (commentary note by Dr. Chunekar).
Water Hyssop
ब्राह्मी
Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell
Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) is one of the foremost Medhya Rasayana herbs. It grows in moist and marshy areas. The plant has small succulent leaves and white-blue flowers. The whole herb is used. It is the premier brain tonic in Ayurveda, enhancing memory, intellect, and cognitive functions. It is used for anxiety, epilepsy, and mental fatigue. Also known as Bacopa in modern herbalism. The plant is a small creeping herb found near water bodies. Leaves are 0.25 x 0.25 inches with small blue flowers. Dose: Swarasa 8-25 x 25-20 drops; Churna: 4 grams. Verse: 271. Also known as Herpestis monniera. B. monniera Wetts.
Water Lily
जलकुम्भी
Pistia stratiotes Linn.
Jalkumbhi (Pistia stratiotes) is a free-floating aquatic plant found in stagnant waters across India. The rosette leaves are velvety, 2-3 inches wide, with prominent veins. The small flowers are inconspicuous. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is used in bleeding disorders and urinary complaints. The plant contains 22% ash (high mineral content) with significant Potassium (8%) content. It multiplies rapidly and can cover entire water surfaces. Verse: 4-5.
Saugandhika
सौगन्धिक
Nymphaea stellata Willd.
Saugandhika is described as a fragrant variety of water lily. Its specific property is the delightful fragrance of the flower. Used similarly to other water lilies for cooling and cardiac support. Verse: 9.
Jalvetasa
जलवेतस
Salix tetrasperma Roxb.
Jalvetasa (Salix tetrasperma) is a variety of willow specifically found near water bodies. It is a large tree growing up to 5000 feet. The bark is used medicinally similar to Salix caprea. It is considered interchangeable with other Vetasa species for medicinal purposes. Properties and uses are similar to Vetasa - antipyretic, astringent, and useful in bleeding disorders.
Watermelon
कालिन्द
Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.
Kalinda (Watermelon) is a popular summer fruit. It is very cooling, thirst-quenching and diuretic. The fruit contains about 90% water with red or yellowish flesh. It is sweet and cooling. The seeds are also used medicinally - they are diuretic and demulcent. Watermelon juice is an excellent summer drink. The fruit is beneficial in Pitta disorders and burning sensation. Dose: As food. Verse: 10.
Wax Tree (Babul
बबूल
Acacia species
Additional varieties of Babool (Acacia) are described with similar properties to the main Babbula. These include varieties with different bark colors and gum qualities. All are astringent and useful in diarrhea and dental care. Verses: 15-17.
White Champa
नागकेसर
Mesua ferrea Linn.
Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea) is a beautiful evergreen tree with fragrant white flowers with golden stamens. The flower stamens (Kesara) are the primary medicinal part. They are used in bleeding disorders, piles, dysentery, and skin diseases. The tree grows in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan forests. The wood is extremely hard (hence 'ironwood'). The flowers bloom in March-April. The dried stamens are used commercially as a spice and medicine. Verse: 15.
White Fig
प्लक्ष
Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham.
Plaksha (White Fig) is a large tree resembling the Banyan. The bark, latex, leaves and fruits are used medicinally. It is one of the Panchavalkala (five barks). Its properties and uses are similar to Vata (Banyan) and Udumbara. It is astringent, cooling and useful in Raktapitta, Yoniroga, and Vrana. The bark decoction is used in diarrhea, dysentery and bleeding disorders. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 11-12.
White Musli
श्वेत मूसली
Asparagus adscendens Roxb.
Safed Musli 1 (Asparagus adscendens) is one of the plants identified as Safed Musli (white musli). The tuberous roots are white, fleshy, and mucilaginous. It grows in the Himalayan foothills. The roots are used fresh or dried as a Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and nutritive tonic. It is highly valued in traditional medicine for sexual debility and general weakness. It promotes semen production and overall vitality. Dose: root powder 5-10 ratti.
Safed Musli
श्वेत मूसली
Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker
Chlorophytum arundinaceum is another species identified as Safed Musli. The tuberous roots contain 13-15% saponin content. The roots are fusiform, fleshy, and white. It is currently the most commercially important Safed Musli species. The dried roots resemble white fingers. Related species include C. laxum Br. (C. tuberosum Baker). It is widely cultivated now for the herbal supplement market. The roots are processed by drying after peeling and are used as a general tonic and aphrodisiac. Dose: powder 3-5 masha.
White Silk Cotton
कूटशाल्मली
Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn.
Kutashalmali is the white-flowered variety of Silk Cotton, also known as True Kapok. It grows widely in the Southern and Western parts of India. The tree provides Kapok fiber from its seed pods. Its medicinal properties are similar to the red Shalmali but it is considered slightly less potent. The gum and root are used as aphrodisiacs. The bark is used in dysentery. Dose: Similar to Shalmali. Verse: 30.
Wild Celery
मक्षिकापुष्पी
Ipomoea reniformis Chois.
Musakarni (Ipomoea reniformis) is a creeping herb with kidney-shaped leaves. It is used as a brain tonic and rejuvenative. The plant is sometimes confused with Mandukparni due to similar leaf shape. It grows in moist areas and has small purple flowers. Verse: 276.
Wild Date
पिण्डखर्जूर
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Pinda Kharjura (Wild Date) is the Indian wild date palm found throughout dry regions. The sap is tapped for toddy and jaggery (Gur). The fruit is smaller than true dates but sweet. The tender central shoot (heart of palm) is edible. Wild date palm toddy is fresh and sweet. Dose: As food. Verse: 43.
Wild Himalayan Cherry
पद्मक
Prunus puddum Roxb. ex Wall.
Padmaka is obtained from the bark of Prunus puddum, a tree found in the Himalayan region. It is known for its cooling properties and is widely used in Ayurveda for skin care, bleeding disorders, and burning sensations. The drug acts as a complexion enhancer (Varnya) and is a key ingredient in many cosmetic and dermatological formulations. It pacifies Pitta and Kapha doshas.
Wild Jasmine
यूथिका
Jasminum auriculatum Vahl.
Juhee (Jasminum auriculatum) is another jasmine species with smaller but intensely fragrant white flowers. It is a climbing shrub. The flowers are used in garlands and for making perfumed oil. It is found across southern and central India. The flowers are smaller than Chameli but equally fragrant. It blooms during summer. Verse: referenced alongside other jasmines.
Wild Sugarcane
इक्षुगन्धा
Saccharum spontaneum Linn.
Kash (Saccharum spontaneum) is a wild sugarcane grass found throughout India. The root is the medicinal part. It is used as a coolant, diuretic, and for bleeding disorders. The root decoction is given in burning urination and kidney stones.
Devnala
देवनल
Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne.
Devnala (Lobelia nicotianaefolia) is also known as Wild Tobacco. It grows in Western India and hilly regions at 3-4 thousand feet. The plant reaches 10-12 feet tall. The leaves resemble tobacco. The plant contains Lobeline, which acts as a respiratory stimulant. It is used primarily in Shvasa (asthma) and Kasa (cough). The plant has emetic properties in larger doses. Lobelia excelsa (another species) is also mentioned. The alkaloid Lobeline acts on the respiratory center. Dose: leaf extract 1-2 drops; powder use cautiously.
Wild Turmeric
वन्ध्याकर्कोटकी
Momordica dioica Roxb.
Vandhyakarkotaki (Momordica dioica) is a dioecious climbing plant. It is found throughout India in various regions at up to 5000 feet altitude. The fruits and tubers are used medicinally. It is particularly useful in digestive disorders and parasitic infestations. The plant bears spiny fruits. The bitter fruit is used as a vegetable and medicinally. Dose: 1-2 tola. Verse reference: 269-270.
Vetasa
वेतस
Salix caprea Linn.
Vetasa (Salix caprea) is a tree found near water bodies and rivers. It grows commonly along riverbanks. The name Vetasa is used for several species of willow. Three species are mentioned: Salix caprea (Sallow), S. tetrasperma (Indian Willow), and S. acmophylla. The bark is the main part used medicinally and contains Salicin (4-10%), the precursor to aspirin. Vetasa is cold in potency and useful in Pitta disorders, bleeding conditions, and fevers. The bark is astringent and antipyretic. It is mentioned as growing near water - 'Nadija' meaning river-born is one of its names. The text confirms Bhavamishra's description that Vetasa bark when used in decoction acts as a febrifuge. Calamus tenuis (a reed/cane) is also sometimes called Vetasa but is a different plant. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola; bark powder 5-10 ratti.
Wood Apple
कपित्थ
Feronia elephantum Correa
Kapittha (Wood Apple) is a moderate-sized tree found throughout India in dry deciduous forests. The fruit has a very hard shell which needs to be broken to access the pulp. The ripe fruit pulp is sour-sweet, aromatic and is excellent for the heart and digestion. It is one of the best Grahi (anti-diarrheal) fruits. The pulp is used to make chutneys and preserves. The unripe fruit is more astringent. The ripe pulp with sugar is cooling and nutritive. The fruit is particularly beneficial in chronic diarrhea, dysentery and hiccup. It increases appetite and is cardiotonic. The bark is used in liver and spleen disorders. The tree has thorns. Dose: Fruit as food; leaf juice 1-2 tola. Verses: 16.
Woodfordia
धातकी
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz
Dhataki (Woodfordia fruticosa) is a deciduous shrub with profuse red flowers. The flowers are extensively used in Ayurvedic Asava and Arishta preparations as a fermenting agent. The flowers are rich in tannins and have strong astringent properties. They are used in diarrhea, dysentery, and bleeding disorders. The plant is an essential ingredient in many fermented Ayurvedic medicines. The flowers are small, tubular, and brilliant red. The shrub grows to 10-15 feet height. Verse: 19-21.
Wrightia
कुटज (श्वेत)
Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.
Wrightia tinctoria, a relative of Kutaja, is described as another species sharing similar anti-diarrheal properties. The seeds (Indrayava) are commonly used in Ayurvedic practice. The bark yields a blue dye (Indigotin). It is a medium-sized tree with milky latex. The seeds are small, oblong, and used in fevers and dysentery. The text notes that Wrightia tomentosa (another species) is also used similarly.
Yam
गण्डदूर्वा
Gand Durva is another knotted variety of Durva grass mentioned briefly.
Yam
वाराहीकन्द
Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.
Varahikanda (Dioscorea bulbifera) is the air potato or aerial yam. It produces bulbils (air tubers) on its climbing stems. The underground tuber is large and fleshy. It is used as a Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Balya (strengthening) drug. The tuber is nutritious and used as food after proper processing. It contains Diosgenin, an important precursor for steroid hormone synthesis. The plant belongs to the Dioscoreaceae family which includes many important yam species. Dioscorea bulbifera is noted as producing aerial bulbils. The text mentions Pueraria tuberosa (Vidari) and Ipomoea digitata (Vidari Kanda) as related but different plants. Dose: tuber powder 2-4 masha.
Yashtimadhu / Mulethi / Liquorice
यष्टीमधु
Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.
One of the most frequently used drugs in Ayurveda. Prime Kanthya (throat-soothing) drug. Ingredient of Sitopaladi Churna, Talisadi Churna. Dried root/stolon is used.
Impure Potash)
यवक्षार
Impure Carbonate of Soda (Potassium carbonate)
Alkali obtained from burning barley or other plant ashes. Used in Ayurvedic preparations as a digestive and for urinary stones. An important Kshara (alkali) in Ayurvedic therapeutics.
Yellow Oleander
सुवर्णकेतकी
Pandanus odoratissimus Roxb. (male)
The golden/yellow variety of Ketaki is described as having a sweeter fragrance. Its properties are similar to the white variety but considered superior in aroma. Used similarly for cardiac and Pitta-related conditions. Verse: 12-14.
Peet Kaner
पीत करवीर
Thevetia neriifolia Juss.
Peet Kaner (Thevetia neriifolia), the Yellow Oleander, is described as similar to the red Kaner but with yellow flowers. The seeds contain Thevetin, a cardiac glycoside, comprising about 45% of the seed. Like the red variety, it is highly poisonous. The bark and roots are used medicinally. The milky sap is acrid and causes inflammation. In Ayurveda it is used in heart conditions and skin diseases in carefully measured doses. The text warns that its leaves and seeds are extremely toxic and can cause cardiac arrhythmia if misused.
Yellow Sandalwood
पीतचन्दन
Santalum album Linn. (mature heartwood)
Pita Chandan (Yellow Sandalwood) is described as a variety of Chandan. Some authorities consider it the same as Kaliyaka. It has properties similar to white sandalwood but is specifically mentioned for its Pitta-pacifying and complexion-improving qualities. The mature heartwood of Santalum album may take on a yellow hue. R. Ni. distinguishes it from Shveta Chandan. Reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 12-14.
Zedoary
कचूर
Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.
Kachur (Zedoary) is the rhizome of Curcuma zedoaria, a plant from the ginger family found throughout India particularly in warm, moist regions. The text describes it as pungent and bitter with heating potency. The rhizomes are aromatic and camphor-like in smell. It is pale yellow inside. The drug is primarily used as a digestive, anthelmintic, and expectorant. It enters formulations for cough, asthma, and intestinal worms. Externally, a paste is applied for inflammatory swellings. The rhizome somewhat resembles turmeric but is paler and has a different aroma. The text mentions it alleviates Kapha and Vata. It is also used in combinations for flatulence and colic. The fresh rhizome yields a pale yellow essential oil with camphoraceous odor. It is sometimes called 'white turmeric'. One of the names 'Karpurakachri' suggests its camphor-like properties. Dose: 1-3 grams, powder applied to p. 126 (PDF page 246).
Zinc/Jasada
यशद
Zincum (Zn)
Yashada (Zinc) is used primarily as Yashad Bhasma in eye diseases, diabetes, and wound healing. It has cooling properties and is especially beneficial in Pitta conditions. Zinc must be properly purified and processed before use. Verses: 111-113.